|
Table of Contents
Streptococcus sp. infections occur in a variety of species of freshwater
and salt-water fishes. These diseases maybe either chronic or acute and
usually are associated with some type of stress. There are about one dozen
species of Streptococcus and Enterococcus that have been associated with
some type of disease condition in fish. Streptococcus infections have been
reported from countries around the world but most severe diseases have
occurred in Central America, Israel, Japan, and the United States. The
disease has been reported in over two dozen species of fish from freshwater
and marine environments and from both cultured and wild fish populations.
Currently, Streptococcus is the most serious disease problem affecting
fish. Streptococcus infections have been reported to be transmitted from
fish to humans. The species most often associated with human infections
is S. iniae but other Streptococcus species that infect fish may also infect
humans. These infections have been contracted when fish are purchased at
live fish markets and the consumer is spined or cut while dressing the
fish. Streptococcus infections are most often associated with some type
of environmental stress or trauma to the fish. The disease appears to be
most severe in closed recirculating systems where environmental conditions
and water quality are continuously marginal. The disease is also associated
with high stocking density, high organic load in the water, or sub-lethal
external protozoan infestations.
In 1999 a massive fish-kill around Kuwait coastal waters was reported, about 30 tones of mullets and other types of fish died during September-October 1999. The main cause of this fish kill was the redtides. Again in August the 10th 2001 a large amount of fish-kill was reported specially in the mullets. Experts at MFD department speculate that the Streptococcus bacteria are the main cause of this fish- kill. Which may have been brought by environmental changes in the chemical composition of the sea have enabled the bacteria to thrive. However Kuwait is still suffering now from this horrible phenomena which has a very bad effect on the fish stock assessment not only in Kuwait but also on the Arabian Gulf. MFD Library has prepared this annotated bibliography on Streptococcus
bacteria with the hope it would be useful to the researchers at MFD department
and provides them with up to date information about this Subject. The bibliography
includes two sections: Articles and Internet sites. It provides references
published from 1997-2001.
Akhlaghi,-M.; Munday,-B.L.; Whittington,-R.J,Comparison of passive and active immunization of fish against streptococcosis (enterococcosis), J.-FISH-DIS. 1996 vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 251-258 Passive immunization of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), was carried out to determine the persistence of anti-Streptococcus sp. antibodies (ASA) raised in sheep, rabbits or rainbow trout. The protection afforded by passive immunization was compared with the protection obtained from active immunization by immersion in or intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection with formalin-killed cells. Assessments were undertaken concurrently for up to 3 months post-immunization (PI) to evaluate the practical potential of passive immunization. Passively administered sheep and rabbit antibodies were detected in fish sera by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for more than 60 days after i.p. injection. Fish responded immunologically to these antibodies and the highest humoral responses to sheep and rabbit ASA occurred at 2 months PI. The relative per cent survival (RPS) of rainbow trout challenged with virulent Streptococcus sp. after an i.p. injection (0.1 ml 100 g super(-1) fish body weight) of sheep, rabbit or fish ASA was: 88.8, 50 and 0% after 1 month; 33.3, 6.8 and 6.8% after 2 months; and 13.3, 0 and 6.6% after 3 months PI, respectively. Fish immunized actively had an RPS of 88.8 and 11.1% after 1 month, 38.1 and 4.7% after 2 months, and 36 and 0% after 3 months PI for the i.p. injection and immersion routes, respectively. Aoki,-T.; Park,-C.-I.; Yamashita,-H.; Hirono,-I., Species-specific polymerase chain reaction primers for Lactococcus garvieae, Journal-of-Fish-Diseases [J-Fish-Dis] 2000 vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 1-6 A dihydropteroate synthase gene from the chromosomal DNA of the fish-pathogenic bacteria Lactococcus garvieae (formerly Enterococcus seriolicida) was cloned. This gene was then chosen as the target for polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The designated PCR primer set only amplified a 709-bp DNA fragment from L. garvieae strains, and did not amplify the same molecular size fragment from related species of L. lactis, Enterococcus faecalis, E. faecium or beta -haemolytic Streptococcus sp. The kidney tissue of yellowtail, Seriola quinqueradiata (Temminck and Schlegel), a species which is naturally infected with L. garvieae, and also kidney tissue samples of healthy yellowtail were stored in TNES-Urea. The DNA was extracted from tissue samples by a modification of the standard method and by a boiled-extraction method. In particular, template DNA was utilized within 30 min following extraction and purification by the boiled-extraction method. These species-specific PCR primers could amplify a L. garvieae target sequence from yellowtail which were naturally infected with L. garvieae. The total procedure for the diagnosis of L. garvieae infections in fish, from the point of DNA extraction to observation in an agarose gel following electrophoresis, can be performed in less than 4 h. Austin,-B., Emerging bacterial fish pathogens, Bull-Eur-Assoc-Fish-Pathol 1999 vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 231-234 It is pertinent to enquire what is meant by an emerging fish pathogen? Some apparently "new" pathogens may reflect developments in other areas of science such as taxonomy. Here, a new pathogen may represent improvements in taxonomy, e.g. the old established Streptomyces (= Streptoverticillium) salmonis became re-classified as Nocardia salmonicida (Isik et al. 1999). Perhaps, an organism may have been misidentified previously, for example there is some evidence that isolates of Hafnia alvei had been labelled previously as Yersinia ruckeri (Austin, unpublished information). Also, there may be situations whereby symptoms are common to more than disease and therefore the culprit ha been wrongly assigned to other taxa. Alternatively, there may be changes in the severity or incidence of a disease, resulting in increased attention by scientists. Maybe, the incidence of a specific disease had been too low previously to attract scientific scrutiny. A change in the environment favouring a "new" organism - such as attributable to pollution. Introduction of an exotic [fish] species, with the disease transferring from indigenous fish stocks [or vice versa]. Change in the health index of the host - perhaps reflecting the presence of external stressors, e.g. due to overcrowding/poor hygiene. Natural selection by which a change selects for a "new" pathogen - such as use of antibiotics selecting for antibiotic-resistant taxa. Then, there is the issue concerning the time-scale for an "emerging" disease? Notwithstanding, many names of apparently "new" fish pathogens have appeared in the scientific literature sometime within a decade (Table 1). These new pathogens will be discussed in this article. Austin,-B.; Cross,-N.,Infection of pronephros cell cultures derived
from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum) with bacterial fish pathogens:
A comparison with whole fish infectivity studies Methods-in-Cell-Science
[Methods-Cell-Sci] 1998 vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 317-324
Primary cell cultures were developed from the pronephros of juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum), and used to determine their interaction with bacterial pathogens as compared to whole fish pathogenicity experiments. Overall, there was excellent agreement with Aeromonas hydrophila, A. salmonicida, Citrobacter freundii, Streptococcus iniae, Vibrio anguillarum, V. damsela, V. harveyi, V. ordalii, `V. viscosus', V. vulnificus and Yersinia ruckeri, which were harmful to cell cultures and pathogenic to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and rainbow trout. Also, a culture of Enterococcus faecium, which is not a recognised fish pathogen, caused mortalities in salmonids and damaged the cell cultures. In contrast, negligible damage to fish and/or cell cultures resulted from challenge with a Carnobacterium sp., Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus sp., V. alginolyticus and commercial formalin-inactivated vaccines for enteric redmouth (= Y. ruckeri) and furunculosis (= A. salmonicida). Use of cell cultures and whole fish experiments revealed that inactivation of V. harveyi for use in vaccines was troublesome, insofar as the addition of formalin and chloroform resulted in harmful preparations. In contrast, cultures of V. harveyi, which were inactivated by heat (100 degree C for 1 hour), lysis at pH 9.5 and glutaraldehyde (to 0.5% w/v), were less harmful. Bahlaoui,-M.A.; Baleux,-B.; Troussellier,-M., Dynamics of pollution-indicator and pathogenic bacteria in high-rate oxidation wastewater treatment ponds, WATER-RES. 1997 pp. 630-638 The spatio-temporal dynamics and removal efficiency of pollution-indicator (total coliforms, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci) and some opportunistic pathogenic bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aeromonas spp.) were studied in two high-rate oxidation ponds (HROP) A and B pilot-plants. The more evident component of the pollution-indicator bacteria dynamics in HROP effluents was an annual periodicity, based on higher concentrations in winter than in summer. The temporal dynamics of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria studied in HROP effluents was more complex than that of fecal-indicator bacteria. While a 6- or 4-month periodicity appeared, respectively, in the effluents of HROP A and B for Aeromonas spp. abundance, no particular trends were highlighted by chronological analyses for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Removal efficiency of fecal-indicator bacteria by HROP reached a maximum in summertime and a minimum in wintertime. On the other hand, for each season, removal efficiency was always higher when the retention time is the longest. The relatively low removal of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aeromonas spp. showed that HROP efficiency should be improved. When HROP sanitary performance was compared to that of conventional wastewater treatment lagoons (CTL) located in the same area, it appears that HROP is the most efficient treatment system. On the other hand, HROP operates with specific load of 500 kg COD/ha/day (vs 100 kg COD/ha/day for CTL). Thus, the required surface area is five times smaller for HROP than for CTL. Belotsky,-S.; Tinman,-S.; Shirak,-A.; Bejerano,-I.; Levy,-R.S.; Avtalion,-R.R., Spontaneous and stimulated chemiluminescence responses of blood leukocytes from healthy and infected tilapia Israeli-Journal-of-Aquaculture; Bamidgeh [Isr-J-Aquacult; Bamidgeh] 1998 vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 67-72 A bimodal distribution in the spontaneous chemiluminescence (SpCL) measurements in naive tilapia leads us to divide the fish into low and high responder groups. Because of the homogeneity in both differential phagocyte cell counts and stimulation indexes, it is suggested that differences between the responder groups are due to innate intrinsic factors. Difference between these two groups is also displayed, in a less significant manner, in zymosan stimulated chemiluminescence (zStCL) that showed a weak linear regression factor (R super(2)=0.4756). In naive tilapia, Streptococcus difficile bacterin-stimulated chemiluminescence (bStCL) values were much lower than those obtained in zStCL. When sibling fish were infected with live S. difficile bacteria, a spectacular increase in bStCL values, with a high stimulation index of 42, was displayed on day 6 after infection. The SpCL and bStCL values increased considerably in diseased fish which displayed a serious symptomatology on day 36 after infection. However, fish that developed resistance to the disease showed lowered values in both SpCL and bStCL. The implication of these findings in the in vivo production of reactive oxygen radicals by phagocytic cells and their connection to resistance and susceptibility to disease are discussed in comparison to mammals. Berridge,-B.R.; Fuller,-J.D.; de-Azavedo,-J.; Low,-D.E.; Bercovier,-H.; Frelier,-P.F.,Development of specific nested oligonucleotide PCR primers for the Streptococcus iniae 16S-23S ribosomal DNA intergenic spacer, J.-Clin.-Microbiol. 1998 vol. 36, no. 9, pp. 2778-2781 Streptococcus iniae is a cause of septicemia, meningoencephalitis, and death in farmed fish and of cellulitis in human beings. A set of nested oligonucleotide PCR primers that specifically amplified a 373-bp subunit from a variety of clinical isolates from farmed fish and human patients were constructed from a 524-bp consensus sequence of the S. iniae 16S-23S ribosomal DNA intergenic spacer. Blaise,-C.R.; Armstrong,-J.B.(Lipolytic bacteria in the Ottawa River, Appl-Microbiol 1973 vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 733-740 Lipolytic bacteria were isolated from 2 stations on Brewery Creek, an arm of the Ottawa River, during the winter of 1971-1972. Total counts were approx 7-fold higher at the more polluted downstream station, whereas lipolytic counts were approx. 100-fold higher. At this station, significantly more lipolytic bacteria grew on plates incubated at 20 degrees C than at 4 degrees C, suggesting that the population was comprised of both mesophiles and psychrophiles. However, at the upstream station, approx the same number were obtained at both temps. A total of 434 isolates, mainly from the downstream station, were tentatively classified. The major groups were Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter-Moraxella, and Aeromonas; other groups isolated were Alcaligenes, Chromobacterium, Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio, and Streptococcus. Though the total number of lipolytic bacteria was fairly constant throughout the winter, the relative abundance of the acinetobacters dropped from approx. 90 per cent in Nov to less than 10 per cent in March, and then increased. The aeromonads and pseudomonads showed the opposite trend. Most of the bacteria, though isolated at 4 degrees C, also grew at 30 degrees C. Lipolysis, however, was generally strongest at 20 degrees C or below. Bowser,-P.R.; Wooster,-G.A.; Getchell,-R.G.; Timmons,-M.B.Streptococcus iniae infection of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in a recirculation production facility, Journal-of-the-World-Aquaculture-Society [J-World-Aquacult-Soc] 1998 vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 335-339 Streptococcus iniae was isolated from moribund pure strain Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in a water recirculation aquaculture facility. The extent of the infection was determined in a number of separate culture systems at the facility. A pilot study was also conducted to gain information on potential stressors that may play a role in spread of the infection within such a water reuse facility. The conditions employed in the pilot stress test did not have any apparent impact on spread of S. iniae infection to fish in additional tanks within the facility. Bromage,-E.S.; Thomas,-A.; Owens,-L.,Streptococcus iniae, a bacterial infection in barramundi Lates calcarifer, Diseases-of-Aquatic-Organisms [Dis-Aquat-Org] 1999 vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 177-181 The cause of ongoing mortality in barramundi Lates calcarifer (Bloch) in seawater culture was identified as Streptococcus iniae by biochemical and physiological tests. This is the first published record of this bacterial species in Australia and the first confirmed report of S. iniae causing mortality in barramundi. The bacterium was highly pathogenic for barramundi when challenged by bath exposure. The pathogen was found to have a LD sub(50) of 2.5 x 10 super(5) and 3.2 x 10 super(4) colony-forming units at 48 h and 10 d respectively. Experimental challenge of barramundi resulted in high levels of mortality (>40%) within a 48 h period. Ten days after the challenge, S. iniae could not be isolated from kidney, spleen, liver or eye of surviving fish. However, the organism was easily isolated from the brain of both moribund and healthy fish, indicating that barramundi can carry the bacterium asymptomatically. Bruni,-V.; Maugeri,-T.L.; Monticelli,-L.,Faecal pollution indicators in the Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea, Antarctica), Mar.-Pollut.-Bull. 1997 vol. 34, no. 11, pp. 908-912 The occurrence of faecal bacteria indicators (total coliforms, faecal coliforms and streptococci) in pristine waters and near Italian Base stations of the Terra Nova Bay was investigated. High bacterial densities were found at the station near to the outfall of the sewage disposal plant and when the population at Base was more abundant. In all other stations further from the outfall, the bacterial indicators were absent or present in very small numbers. Faecal bacteria were not detected in samples collected at pristine sites (Penguin Bay and Evans Cove) except for only 1 enterococcus per 100 ml at Evans Cove. In the seawater samples in which faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci were found, the latter were generally more abundant and in 4 samples only streptococci were isolated, although in low number. This could suggest that faecal streptococci are more suitable bacteria for investigation of the human impact on the Antarctic marine environment. Bunch,-E.C.; Bejerano,-I.,The effect of environmental factors on the susceptibility of hybrid tilapia Oreochromis niloticus x Oreochromis aureus to Streptococcosis, ISR.-J.-AQUACULT.-BAMIDGEH 1997 vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 67-76. Streptococcus spp. were isolated from healthy and diseased tilapia hybrids (Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus), healthy carp (Cyprinus carpio), diseased mullet (Mugil cephalus) and striped hybrid bass (Morone saxatilis x M. chrysops), pond water and poultry manure. Streptococci were divided into two groups according to biochemical characteristics: (a) alpha -hemolytic, mannitol+, usually isolated from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) throughout the year and, more rarely, from tilapia during the winter (water temperature 15-16 degree C), and (b) gamma -hemolytic, mannitol- usually isolated from tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) in warm water aquaculture (26-28 degree C). The disease was produced experimentally in tilapia hybrids to investigate the effect of low dissolved oxygen levels and high nitrite concentrations on the susceptibility of the fish to infection. Both stress factors proved to increase the mortality. No additive effect was seen when these factors were applied simultaneously. By using the same experimental infection model, it was also possible to produce streptococcal infection in carp. The diseased tilapia had a significantly lower hematocrit (p<0.05) and higher buffy coat (p<0.01) than the healthy fish. Our findings suggest that Streptococcus spp. are opportunistic pathogens because they are wide spread in the aquaculture environment and because of their dependence on stress to assert pathogenity. Calvo,-C.; Gomez,-M.A.; Gonzalez-Lopez,-J.,Fecal coliform-related bacterial and coliphage populations in five lakes of southeastern Spain, Microbiological-Research [Microbiol-Res] 1998 vol. 153, no. 3, pp. 283-288 Aerobic heterotrophic bacteria, fecal and total coliforms, fecal streptococci and coliphages were isolated from five protected lakes in the Antequera area of Spain over the time from January to March (1994-96). The water samples contained large number of heterotrophic bacteria (mean counts 0.2 to 5.0 x 10 super(7) cfu per100 ml). Most of the lakes contained fecal streptococci and a relationship between streptococci and salinity of the water samples was stablished. Coliphages were isolated from lakes containing fecal coliform and these bacteria were taxonomically identified as E. coli. Coliform bacilli do not seem to be an adequate indicator of fecal pollution for these ephemeral small lakes. Carballeira,-N.M.; Emiliano,-A.; Hernandez-Alonso,-N.; Gonzalez,-F.A., Facile Total Synthesis and Antimicrobial Activity of the Marine Fatty Acids (Z)-2-Methoxy-5-hexadecenoic Acid and (Z)-2-Methoxy-6-hexadecenoic Acid, Journal-of-Natural-Products [J-Nat-Prod] 1998 vol. 61, no. 12, pp. 1543-1546 The total synthesis of the naturally occurring (Z)-2-methoxy-5-hexadecenoic acid and (Z)-2-methoxy-6-hexadecenoic acid was accomplished using as a key step Mukaiyama's trimethylsilyl cyanide addition to 4- and 5-pentadecenal, respectively. These syntheses further confirm the structures of the natural marine fatty acids and corroborate their cis double-bond stereochemistry. The title compounds were antimicrobial against the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 0.35 mu mol/mL) and Streptococcus faecalis (MIC 0.35 mu mol/mL). Carballeira,-N.M.; Reyes,-E.D.; Sostre,-A.; Rodriguez,-A.D.; Rodriguez,-J.L.; Gonzalez,-F.A., Identification of the novel antimicrobial fatty acid (5Z,9Z)-14-methyl-5,9-pentadecadienoic acid in Eunicea succinea, J.-NAT.-PROD. 1997 vol. 60, no. 5, pp. 502-504 The phospholipid fatty acid composition of Eunicea succinea was investigated, and the novel (5Z,9Z)-14-methyl-5,9-pentadecadienoic acid was identified. Structural characterization was accomplished by means of mass spectrometry of its pyrrolidide derivative, NMR, FTIR, and total synthesis. Other interesting phospholipid fatty acids in E. succinea were the tetracosapolyenoic acids 6,9,12,15,18,21-tetracosahexaenoic acid (24:6) and 6,9,12,15,18-tetracosapentaenoic acid (24:5). The title compound was particularly active against Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 0.24 mu mol/mL) and Streptococcus faecalis (MIC 0.16 mu mol/mL). Chanda,-T.; Bhattacharyya,-D.,Growth kinetics of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus faecalis under the influence of liquid nitrogen and subsequent storage of treated cooked prawn meat, Curr.-Sci. 1998 vol. 74, no. 9, pp. 791-893 Growth kinetics of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus faecalis in treated cooked prawn meat after liquid nitrogen freezing and subsequent frozen storage indicate that S. aureus survived up to 10 months of storage in case of liquid nitrogen frozen sample and more than 12 months in case of conventional frozen sample. In contrast, survival period of S. faecalis was limited to 2 months and 4 months in case of liquid nitrogen and conventional frozen sample respectively. Natural coliform bacteria were found to be nil after one month and five months of storage in case of liquid nitrogen and conventional frozen sample. Total bacterial count was much less in case of liquid nitrogen frozen sample during the total period of one year. Chang,-P.H.; Plumb,-J.A.,Histopathology of experimental Streptococcus sp. infection in tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), and channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), J.-FISH-DIS. 1996 vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 235-241 Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), and channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), were experimentally infected by immersion with three isolates (Lake, DL805 and MS91452) of Streptococcus sp. from diseased fish. To enhance infection, the lateral body surface of each fish was scraped prior to bacterial exposure. The Lake and DL805 isolates caused ex-ophthalmia, ocular opacity and ocular haemorrhage in some tilapia. Histopathology of these fish revealed: meningitis; polyserositis of heart, liver, spleen, ovary and kidney; splenitis; ovaritis; and myocarditis. Isolate MS91452 induced only mild granulomas in spleen, kidney and ovary of tilapia. The Lake and DL805 isolates induced endophthalitis. Channel catfish infected with the Lake and DL805 isolates developed similar eye lesions to tilapia. Histologic lesions caused by all three isolates in channel catfish consisted of meningoencephalitis, mild myocarditis, splenitis and ovaritis, but these lesions were not as severe as Edwards,-D.R.; Coyne,-M.S.; Daniel,-T.C.; Vendrell,-P.F.; Murdoch,-J.F.; Moore,-P.A.,Jr., Indicator bacteria concentrations of two northwest Arkansas streams in relation to flow and season, TRANS.-ASAE 1997 vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 103-109 Concentrations of indicator bacteria such as fecal coliform (FC) and fecal streptococcus (FS) are often used to assess the suitability of waters for their intended use(s) and to allocate resources for water quality improvement measures. There is evidence, however, that concentrations of FC and FS can be influenced by variables such as season and flow rate during sampling, which could lead to biased results. The objective of this study was to assess the impacts of season and flow rate on concentrations of FC and FS. Fecal indicator bacteria concentrations were measured for approximately three years at five sites on two Northwest Arkansas streams. Flow data were collected at two of the five sites. Land use in the basins draining the streams was primarily pasture (57-90%) and forest (6-40%). Significant seasonal influences on FC and FS concentrations were detected for all sampling sites, with the highest concentrations occurring in summer. On the two sites with flow data, flow rate generally had a significant effect on FC and FS concentrations during all seasons, with FC and FS concentrations increasing with flow rate. Ratios of FC and FS, which have been used in the past to differentiate between animal and human sources of fecal pollution, did not appear to reliably indicate the major sources of fecal indicator bacteria. The findings of this study suggest a potential for fixed sampling intervals to contribute to biased results. The issue of biased results might be avoided by sampling during times of year and flow conditions that support the intended use(s) of the waters. Efiuvwevwere,-B.J.O.; Isaiah.-A.U., Effects of hygienic handling in combination with potassium sorbate treatment and smoking on the microbial quality and shelf-stability of croaker (Micropogonias furnieri), Z-Lebensm-Unters-Forsch-A-Food-Res-Technol 1998 vol. 207, no. 1, pp. 13-17 Fresh croaker (Micropogonias furnieri) were handled hygienically (i.e. in decontaminated containers) or conventionally (i.e. unhygienically) and dipped for 30 or 60s in 3 % (w/v) potassium sorbate (KS) prior to hot-smoking. Changes in microbial, physical and sensory quality attributes during tropical ambient (28 plus or minus 2 degree C) storage were investigated. Six bacterial genera of predominantly Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from the fresh samples subjected to hygienic treatment. A more heterogeneous bacterial flora of 11 genera was isolated from conventionally handled samples. Most of the Gram-negative bacteria were eliminated following smoking, resulting in the samples being dominated by Gram-positive bacterial flora consisting of Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus. However, moulds (Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp. and Rhizopus stolonifer) constituted the major spoilage organisms. Significant reductions (P=0.05) in total viable counts and coliform bacteria were observed in all samples after smoking. Further reductions occurred in samples held in decontaminated containers prior to smoking. Coliform bacteria were undetected on the 4th day in samples handled hygienically and dipped for 60 s in KS before smoking, but coliform growth and population increase occurred thereafter. The moisture content of the fresh samples was reduced significantly following smoking and tended to increase after about 8 days, but pH decreased slightly. Combination treatments of hygienic handling with extended dipping time (60 s) in KS and smoking exerted the maximum positive impact on the microbial quality and shelf-life of the samples. Eldar,-A.; Ghittino,-C., Lactococcus garvieae and Streptococcus iniae infections in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss: similar, but different diseases, Diseases-of-Aquatic-Organisms [Dis-Aquat-Org] 1999 vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 227-231 Clinical and macroscopic findings (anorexia, lethargy, loss of orientation and exophthalmia) indicate that Streptococcus iniae and Lactococcus garvieae infections of trout share some common features, but histopathology reveals notable differences between the 2 diseases. Meningitis and panophthalmitis are the main lesions among S. iniae infected trout, whereas L. garvieae infection results in a hyperacute systemic disease. Differences in the LD sub(50)s of the 2 pathogens and the sudden onset of signs and death correlate with the histopathological findings, indicating the severity of L. garvieae infection of trout. Eldar,-A.; Horovitcz,-A.; Bercovier,-H.,Development and efficacy of a vaccine against Streptococcus iniae infection in farmed rainbow trout, VET.-IMMUNOL.-IMMUNOPATHOL. 1997 vol. 56, no. 1-2, pp. 175-183 Formalin killed bacteria were used as a vaccine against Streptococcus iniae infections in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). A single intraperitoneal injection of this vaccine in trout resulted in specific antibody production detectable for 6 months. Trout vaccinated at 50 g were protected under laboratory (experimental disease) and field conditions (natural disease) for at least 4 months against S. iniae infection. Passive transfer of S. iniae specific antibodies conferred protection. Under field conditions, mortality of non vaccinated trout exceeded 50%, whereas mortality of vaccinated trout did not reach 5%. In addition, vaccinated trout under field conditions gained 20% weight when compared with non vaccinated fish. Eldar,-A.; Perl,-S.; Frelier,-P.F.; Bercovier,-H.,Red drum Sciaenops ocellatus mortalities associated with Streptococcus iniae infection, Diseases-of-Aquatic-Organisms [Dis-Aquat-Org] 1999 vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 121-127 We isolated for the first time Streptococcus iniae strains associated with diseased marine fish. Diseased red drum Sciaenops ocellatus were lethargic, and presented external signs (exophthalmia and loss of orientation) resembling those of freshwater fish infected by S. iniae. Skin lesions, extending to a necrotizing myositis, were typical of S. iniae infection of red drum. Histopathological findings indicate that S. iniae infection in red drum produces a chronic disease with systemic involvement characterized by multiple necrotic foci. Molecular epidemiology (RFLP [restriction fragment length polymorphism] ribotyping) revealed that 2 different ribotypes were involved in a single outbreak. The first is the EcoRI 'Israeli' trout and tilapine ribotype (Hind III type a strains), while the second is the EcoRI 'American' ribotype (Hind III type b strains), typical of tilapines farmed in Texas and Idaho. Evans,-D.L.; Taylor,-S.L.; Leary,-J.H., III; Bishop,-G.R.; Eldar,-A.; Jaso-Friedmann,-L., In vivo activation of tilapia nonspecific cytotoxic cells by Streptococcus iniae and amplification with apoptosis regulatory factor(s), Fish-and-Shellfish-Immunology [Fish-Shellfish-Immunol] 2000 vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 419-434 An important component of immediate innate responses of tilapia to stress is the release within minutes of soluble cytokine-like substances into the peripheral circulation. These cytokine-like stress factors bind nonspecific cytotoxic cells (NCC) and produce 3-4-fold increased cytotoxicity. In the present study, the in vivo responses of tilapia NCC following injection with different isolates of intact killed Streptococcus iniae was investigated. Activated cytotoxicity of NCC in the peripheral blood (PB) was produced by increased specific activity of resident cells rather than increased numbers. Tilapia injected intravenously (i.v.) with killed S. iniae produced different cytotoxicity responses compared to fish injected intraperitoneally (i.p.). In the spleen (S) and anterior kidney (AK), there was no correlation between S. iniae isolate and cytotoxicity response at 4, 8 or 24 h following i.p. injection. The NCC response following i.v. injection of killed bacteria was different. Within minutes following i.v. injection, NCC cytotoxicity from the PB increased 100% compared to naieve controls. The existence of subsets of differentiated NCC in the PB was suggested because i.v. injection had no amplification effects on NCC from the AK or S. Likewise, NCC from the PB only appeared to exhibit a degree of antigen specificity.S. iniae strain #173 produced activation of cytotoxicity compared to isolates #164 and ATCC. Evidence for soluble factor (cytokine?) involvement in increased cytotoxicity was obtained by passive activation of NCC with serum from #173 (i.v.) injected fish. Incubation of this serum with control (naieve) NCC produced large increases in the cytotoxicity of labelled HL-60 target cells. Similarly obtained serum from fish injected with ATCC and #164 isolates had no amplification activity. Studies were also performed to study the mechanism(s) of passive activation. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that NCC from the S, AK and PB constitutively expressed cytosolic (not membrane) FasL. Stress serum treated NCC obtained from the peripheral blood produced an increase in the expression of FasL, CAS and FADD by Western blot examination. These data indicated that cytokine like factors in the serum of stressed tilapia activate increased NCC cytotoxicity(possibly) by stimulating the expression of proteins involved in activation of programmed cell death. Evans,-J.J.; Shoemaker,-C.A.; Klesius,-P.H., Experimental Streptococcus iniae infection of hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops x Morone saxatilis) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) by nares inoculation, Aquaculture 2000 vol. 189, no. 3-4, pp. 197-210 Streptococcus iniae infection was evaluated in hybrid striped bass and tilapia following experimental, bilateral inoculation of a virulent isolate of S. iniae onto their eyes or into their nares. Inoculation of eyes did not result in mortality or disease signs in either species. In contrast, mortality and disease signs were observed in both species following nares inoculation. Hybrid striped bass were susceptible to 4.8 x 10 super(3) S. iniae colony forming units (CFU), an inoculum 100 times lower than that affecting tilapia. We observed decreased mortality of hybrid striped bass administrated 4.8 x 10 super(5) CFU dose of S. iniae. Following S. iniae infection, the disease signs observed in hybrid striped bass and tilapia were erratic, serpentine, rising and falling, and head-up swimming, slow acceptance or refusal of food, lethargy and darkened skin. We did not observe exophthalmia, eye opacity or body curvature. We were able to recover S. iniae from either nares, eyes, brains, or head kidney of 87.5% and 66.7% of the morbid hybrid striped bass and tilapia, respectively. Both hybrid striped bass and tilapia produced significant anti-streptococcal titers 14 days post nares inoculation with 4.8 x 10 super(3) CFU of S. iniae. Successful experimental S. inaie infection of fish following nares inoculation suggest that nares may be a potential route of S. iniae infection in cultured fish species. This route of experimental infection for S. iniae has not been previously described in fish. George,-T.T., Canadian doctors confirm the infection and effects of Streptococcus iniae in fish and humans, Contributed-papers-Aquaculture-Canada-'-98 1999 no. 98-2, pp. 87-89 Streptococcus iniae a beta -hemolytic bacterium, was first reported in 1976 to cause golf ball disease in freshwater dolphins (Inia geoffrensis) kept in aquararia in the United States. Later it was found to be a major pathogen responsible for mortalities in freshwater and marine fish species. The first recognized case of S. iniae infections in humans occurred in Texas, USA, in 1991 and a second case occurred in Ottawa, Canada, in 1994; potential sources of the infections were not determined. In the winter of 1995-1996, Canadian doctors found that S. iniae infection can be spread to humans through a cut in the skin when handling infected fish. This pathogen and its associated disease can pose serious constraints on the profitability of culturing fish and also be the cause of direct health risks to humans. This paper provides an account of the history and taxonomy of S. iniae, its infection and effects in fish and humans, its impact on the aquaculture industry, methods of control in the aquatic media, and strategies for protecting humans from becoming infected. Gerard,-J.M.,Antibiotic Secondary Metabolites of Bacteria Isolated From the Marine Environment, Dissertation-Abstracts-International-Part-B:-Science-and-Engineering [Diss-Abst-Int-Pt-B-Sci-and-Eng] 1998 vol. 59, no. 2 Bioassay guided fractionation of the organic extracts obtained from cultures of several bacteria strains from the marine environment led to the isolation of twelve new and nine previously described secondary metabolites. The structures of these metabolites were determined by extensive chemical and spectroscopic analysis. Stable isotope incorporation experiments were also performed using one of the isolated strains to investigate the biosynthetic origins of the atoms in the principle active secondary metabolite. a culture of a Bacillus sp. isolated from the tissues of a marine worm collected near Loloata Island in Papua New Guinea produced a mixture of novel cyclic decapeptide antibiotics. Loloatins a (1), B (2), and C (3) were isolated and their structures were elucidated through NMR and mass spectrometric analysis. Peptides 1, 2, and 3 showed potent gram-positive antibiotic activity, including activity against drug resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Enterococcus spp. Loloatin C (3) also showed strong Gram-negative antibiotic activity. Massetolides A-H (4-11), novel cyclic depsipeptides, as well as the known compound viscosin (12), were isolated from cultures of two Pseudomonas sp. isolatad from a marine alga and a marine tube worm each collected near Masset Inlet, B.C. and Moira Island, B.C. respectively. Massetolide a (4) and viscosin (12) exhibited in vitro antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium- intracellulare. the known compounds, AI77-B (13), AI77-F (14) as well as AI77-H (15), a new diastereomer of AI77-F (14), were isolated from several species of Bacillus pumilus isolated from various marine sources. AI77-B (13) exhibited cytotoxic and Gram- positive antibiotic activity. The absolute configuration of AI77-H (15) was determined by chemical modification and NMR analysis of the (R)- and (S)- alpha -methoxy- alpha - (trifluoromethyl)phenylacetate esters. Finally, stable isotope incorporation experiments were performed using a selected strain of Bacillus pumilus which demonstrated that AI77-B (13) is of mixed polyketide/amino acid biosynthetic origin.* ftn*Please refer to dissertation for diagrams. Gerard,-J.M.; Haden,-P.; Kelly,-M.T.; Andersen,-R.J., Loloatins A-D, Cyclic Decapeptide Antibiotics Produced in Culture by a Tropical Marine Bacterium, Journal-of-Natural-Products [J-Nat-Prod] 1999 vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 80-85 Loloatins A (1) to D (4), a family of new cyclic decapeptide antibiotics, have been isolated from laboratory cultures of a tropical marine bacterium recovered from the Great Barrier Reef in Papua New Guinea. The structures of loloatins A-D were elucidated via a combination of spectroscopic analyses and chemical degradation. Loloatins A-D exhibit in vitro antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphyloccoccus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae.. Getchell,-R., S. iniae causes tilapia infection, Fish-Farm.-News 1998 vol. 6, p. 16 The diseases that plague aquacultured fish are not always caused by exotic viruses or strange organisms. Sometimes the causitive agent - at least on the genus level - has a familiar ring to it. The invasive infection I'll describe in this column is caused by Streptococcus iniae, which has mostly affected farmed tilapia and is diagnosed using standard bacteriological procedures. What makes this streptococcal disease interesting is that it was linked to a cluster of four cases of human illness in Toronto in late 1995. Additional surveillance identified a total of nine patients with invasive S. iniae infection. Each of the Toronto patients was of Asian descent and had a history of buying live fish and bringing them home for cleaning and eating. Eight of the nine also injured their hand while preparing the aquacultured fish. Six patients identified the fish they purchased as tilapia. Their clinical symptoms were fever and swollen lymph nodes near the site of injury. Blood cultures from these patients were positive for S. iniae. This particular streptococcal infection is what is known as a zoonotic disease - one that crosses species boundaries. In this case, the disease infected both humans and fish. Grignard,-J.-C.; Melard,-C.; Kestemont,-P., A preliminary study of parasites and diseases in perch in an intensive culture system, J.-APPL.-ICHTHYOL.-Z.-ANGEW.-ICHTHYOL. 1996 vol. 12, no. 3-4, pp. 195-199 The recent development of intensive rearing of European perch Perca fluviatilis in warm water effluents revealed important pathological problems. This study gives a preliminary overview of parasites and diseases encountered in experimental perch farming. No virus has been recorded since the beginning of the experiments in 1993. By contrast mass mortality caused by bacterial disease alone or associated with other pathogens were frequently observed. The main identified bacterial species were: Aeromonas sp., A. veronii, A. hydrophila, Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus sp., Vibrio fluviatilis and Enterobacter agglomerans. Protozoans were the most common parasites observed on cultured P. fluviatilis. High mortality rate due to Ichthyobodo necator and Trichodina sp. may take place at different stages of perch rearing. In contrast, the infestation by Ambiphrya sp. and Heteropolaria sp. was size- or age-related; these two ciliates infested perch weighing < 1 g and > 20 g, respectively. In spite of the presence of other parasites such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Hexamita spp., Gyrodactylus sp. and Argulus sp. in the rearing system P. fluviatilis does not appear to be affected. Further abnormalities or diseases inherent to intensive culture systems are also described. Guimaraes,-W.B.,Water quality in the Withers Swash Basin, with emphasis on enteric bacteria, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, 1991-93, OPEN-FILE-REPORTS-SECTION,-BOX-25286,-MS-517,-DENVER,-CO-802259-USA U.S.-GEOLOGICAL-SURVEY,-EARTH-SCIENCE-INFORMATION-CENTER 102 pp. Water samples were collected in 1991-93 from Withers Swash and its two tributaries (the Mainstem and KOA Branches) in Myrtle Beach, S.C., and analyzed for physical properties, organic and inorganic constituents, and fecal coliform and streptococcus bacteria. Samples were collected during wet- and dry-weather conditions to assess the water quality of the streams before and after storm runoff. Water samples were analyzed for over 200 separate physical, chemical, and biological constituents. Concentrations of 11 constituents violated State criteria for shellfish harvesting waters, and State Human Health Criteria. The 11 constituents included concentrations of dissolved oxygen, arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, chlordane, dieldrin, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1-dichloroethylene, trichloroethylene, and fecal coliform bacteria. Water samples were examined for the presence of enteric bacteria (fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus) at 46 sites throughout the Withers Swash Basin and 5 sites on the beach and in the Atlantic Ocean. Water samples were collected just upstream from all confluences in order to determine sources of bacterial contamination. Temporally and spatially high concentrations of enteric bacteria were detected throughout the Withers Swash Basin; however, these sporadic bacteria concentrations made it difficult to determine a single source of the contamination. These enteric bacteria concentrations are probably derived from a number of sources in the basin including septic tanks, garbage containers, and the feces of waterfowl and domestic animals. Harwood,-V.J.; Whitlock,-J.; Withington,-V., Classification of antibiotic resistance patterns of indicator bacteria by discriminant analysis: use in predicting the source of fecal contamination in subtropical waters, Applied-and-Environmental-Microbiology [Appl-Environ-Microbiol] 2000 vol. 66, no. 9, pp. 3698-3704 The antibiotic resistance patterns of fecal streptococci and fecal coliforms isolated from domestic wastewater and animal feces were determined using a battery of antibiotics (amoxicillin, ampicillin, cephalothin, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, erythromycin, streptomycin, and vancomycin) at four concentrations each. The sources of animal feces included wild birds, cattle, chickens, dogs, pigs, and raccoons. Antibiotic resistance patterns of fecal streptococci and fecal coliforms from known sources were grouped into two separate databases, and discriminant analysis of these patterns was used to establish the relationship between the antibiotic resistance patterns and the bacterial source. The fecal streptococcus and fecal coliform databases classified isolates from known sources with similar accuracies. The average rate of correct classification for the fecal streptococcus database was 62.3%, and that for the fecal coliform database was 63.9%. The sources of fecal streptococci and fecal coliforms isolated from surface waters were identified by discriminant analysis of their antibiotic resistance patterns. Both databases identified the source of indicator bacteria isolated from surface waters directly impacted by septic tank discharges as human. At sample sites selected for relatively low anthropogenic impact, the dominant sources of indicator bacteria were identified as various animals. The antibiotic resistance analysis technique promises to be a useful tool in assessing sources of fecal contamination in subtropical waters, such as those in Florida. Hunter,-C.; Perkins,-J.; Tranter,-J.; Gunn,-J., Agricultural land-use effects on the indicator bacterial quality of an upland stream in the Derbyshire Peak District in the U.K., Water-Research [Water-Res] 1999 vol. 33, no. 17, pp. 3577-3586 Concentrations of indicator bacteria - faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS) - were monitored at stream and water inflow sampling sites over a 21 month period within a small upland catchment in north Derbyshire, England. Agricultural land-use within the catchment included rough, semi-improved and improved pastures for sheep grazing. During its passage through the catchment, the stream became significantly contaminated by faecal bacteria, suggesting the existence of a semi-permanent store of faecal bacteria in catchment soils, combined with hydrological transport mechanisms capable of moving bacteria from the land to the stream channel. Spatial changes in the bacterial quality of streamwater could be explained by the influence of a number of monitored water inflows to the stream, although a clear and consistent relationship between the bacterial quality of catchment waters and the intensity of adjacent agricultural land-use was not apparent. This is explained in terms of a trade-off between practices which allow land-use intensification and a consequent reduction in the potential for bacterial survival in soils and efficient hydrological transport via surfacewater flows. A consistent seasonal pattern of bacterial concentration change was observed, with the highest concentrations occurring during summer months as stocking density increased and the bacterial land store recovered from high precipitation-related outputs during the winter. The extent of faecal bacterial contamination of the stream, particularly during summer months, may constitute a real health risk to recreational cavers using parts of the limestone karst system into which the stream drains. Hurvitz,-A.; Bercovier,-H.; Van-Rijn,-J.,Effect of ammonia on the survival and the immune response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum) vaccinated against Streptococcus iniae, FISH-SHELLFISH-IMMUNOL. 1997 vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 45-53 The effect of sublethal concentrations of ammonia on the survival and the antibody response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum), vaccinated against and challenged with Streptococcus iniae, was examined in this study. The relative percent survival (RPS) of vaccinated fish exposed for 1 month to low (NH sub(3)-N up to 7 mu g/l), medium (NH sub(3)-N; 50-80 mu g/l) and high (NH sub(3)-N; 180-230 mu g/l) concentrations of ammonia and then challenged with a virulent S. iniae strain was examined during 1 month following challenge. There was no difference in the RPS of trout maintained at low and medium ammonia levels, but the RPS of fish exposed to the high ammonia level was significantly lower. Long term exposure of vaccinated trout to medium ammonia concentrations reduced the RPS as compared with control vaccinated fish. There was no correlation between antibody titres and exposure to ammonia and protection. Based on passive transfer of immunity by antibodies, it was concluded that the decrease of protection against S. iniae in ammonia-exposed trout could be attributed to suppression of the cellular or the non-specific defence mechanisms or to the effect of ammonia on other physiological systems (vascular, respiratory, etc.). Jagals,-P.; Morris,-R.; Grabow,-W.O.K.; Jofre,-J.-(eds.), Stormwater runoff from typical developed and developing South African urban developments: Definitely not for swimming, HEALTH-RELATED-WATER-MICROBIOLOGY-1996.;Water-Science-and-Technology 1997 pp. 133-140;vol. 35, no. 11-12 Public water in South Africa is protected from pollution from urban areas and industries through various forms of wastewater treatment and enforced by legislation and standards. However, hardly any standard or guideline exists for an acceptable quality for urban run-off such as stormwater. The microbiological quality of urban run-off from various large urban developments in the Free State Province, South Africa, has been investigated to establish the extent of faecal pollution. Sanitation of a low socio-economic urban residential development was generally limited, comprising mainly pit and bucket latrines. Sanitation of the other developments was typical of the larger more developed South African urban situation. It comprised well developed residential structures with full water-borne sewerage, fully serviced central business districts, developing residential areas with both waterborne sewerage and additional areas of informal settlement with limited facilities. Faecal coliforms (FC) and enterococci (FE) were used as generalised indicator organisms of faecal pollution together with sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria (SFB) and Streptococcus bovis (SB). Somatic (SC) and male specific coliphages (MSC) were used as indicators of organic and sewage pollution of the receiving water in the target areas. Samples were collected from perennial flow during the dry season and from stormwater run-off after thundershowers. Stormwater run-off from the large settlement with limited facilities as well as from the residential development with additional informal settlement reached FC counts of <6 logs/100mL, equivalent to many sewage effluents. Stormwater run-off from well developed urban structures reached FC of <4 logs/100mL, which exceeded safety margins in guidelines for recreational water quality. The results show that run-off from developing urban settlements, as well as developed urban structures, constitute a major source of pollution for a river catchment which is downstream used as a source of water for human consumption and recreation. The level of pollution dictates that stabilisation of urban surface run-off should be regarded as an equal priority to the enforced stabilisation of other wastewaters generated by human activities. Klesius,-P.H.; Shoemaker,-C.A.; Evans,-J.J., Efficacy of single and combined Streptococcus iniae isolate vaccine administered by intraperitoneal and intramuscular routes in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Aquaculture 2000 vol. 188, no. 3-4, pp. 237-246 We evaluated the effectiveness of Streptococcus iniae vaccines prepared from formalin-killed cells and concentrated extracellular products (greater than 2 kDa) of a single isolate of S. iniae (ARS-10) and a combination of ARS-10+ARS-60 S. iniae isolates in tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, for the prevention of streptococcal disease. Two routes of administration, intraperitoneal (i.p.) and intramuscular (i.m.) injection, were evaluated for vaccine efficacy. Tilapia were vaccinated by i.p. or i.m. injection of the vaccine or tryptic soy broth (control) and challenged by i.p. injection with 1 x 10 super(8) colony-forming units of S. iniae 30 days post-immunization. Tilapia i.p. immunized with ARS-10 vaccine and challenged with the homologous isolate (ARS-10) had a relative percent survival (RPS) of 45.6%. Tilapia i.p. immunized with ARS-10 vaccine and challenged with a heterologous isolate (ARS-60) had an RPS of 93.7%. In contrast, we found that the RPS was 17.7% in tilapia i.m. immunized with the ARS-10 vaccine and challenged with the same isolate, ARS-10. Heterologous (ARS-60) isolate challenge resulted in an RPS of 59.5%. However, the i.m. administration of a vaccine combining the ARS-10+ARS-60 isolates provided an RPS of 63.1 against ARS-10 isolate and RPS of 87.3% against ARS-60 isolate in comparison to RPS of 17.7 and 59.5 against ARS-10 and -60 isolates provided by the single isolate ARS-10 vaccine. Vaccination significantly reduced abnormal behavior and morphology. We found a highly significant (P<0.01) negative correlation between the behavioral and morphological score and RPS. Serologic evaluation revealed that both i.p. and i.m. immunizations stimulated significant (P<0.05) antibody titers in comparison to the non-immunized tilapia. Significantly (P<0.05) increased antibody titers were also produced by i.m. immunization of the combined ARS-10+ARS-60 vaccine. Administration of the single isolate ARS-10 vaccine by i.m. injection was marginally protective in preventing streptococcal disease caused by homologous and heterologous isolates of S. iniae. The variability seen in the protective ability of a single S. iniae isolate vaccine indicates that antigenic heterogeneity exist in S. iniae. Recognition of this antigenic variability is very important to development of efficacious streptococcal vaccines. Thus, this research suggests that efficacious vaccines, that may be administered by either i.p. or i.m. injection, are dependent on the antigenic composition of the S. iniae. Krogh,-M.; Robinson,-L., Environmental variables and their association with faecal coliform and faecal streptococci densities at thirteen Sydney beaches, MAR.-POLLUT.-BULL. 1997 vol. 33, no. 7-12, pp. 239-248 Environmental variables and their association with faecal coliform and streptococci densities were investigated at a number of Sydney's metropolitan beaches. High variability in faecal coliform and faecal streptococci densities was observed at most beaches. The ability of the various models to explain the observed variation in faecal coliform or streptococci levels was relatively low, although they did provide an insight into the more influential environmental factors involved. Rainfall has the single most important effect on faecal coliform and streptococci densities at Sydney beaches. Whether this is due to increased stormwater runoff at the beaches, increased discharge through the outfalls (both the deepwater ocean outfalls and the few remaining shoreline outfalls), or a combination of both is unclear and is likely to depend on the individual beach being considered. Elevated levels of faecal coliforms and streptococci are still occasionally observed at some beaches, but these levels are usually not as high nor as frequent as they were prior to commissioning of the deepwater outfalls. The significant associations of current and plume entrapment with faecal coliform and streptococci densities at some Sydney beaches suggest that under certain conditions, effluent from the deepwater ocean outfalls can still influence faecal coliform and streptococci densities at these beaches. Lannelongue-Favre,-M., The effects of carbon dioxide on growth, fatty acid composition and tricarboxylic acid cycle of some microorganisms isolated from Gulf of Mexico black drum (Pogonias cromis), DISS.-ABST.-INT.-PT.-B-SCI.-and-ENG. 1985 vol. 45, no. 9, 106 pp Potential mechanisms for the inhibitory properties of carbon dioxide (CO sub(2)) on common type microorganisms isolated from fish were investigated. The organisms used were initially isolated from black drum (Pogonias cromis) harvested in the Gulf of Mexico. Aerobic plate counts (APC) at the time of harvest averaged 5 x 10 super(2)/cm super(2). During storage on ice, bacterial numbers increased approximately 1 log cycle for every 3 days averaging 2.9 x 10 super(5)/cm super(2) at the end of the storage period. At day 0 and day 3, the microflora was comprised predominantly of gram-positive organisms, mainly Micrococcus and Streptococcus spp. After 6 and 9 days of storage, the percentage of gram-positive bacteria declined dramatically. The main bacterial types isolated were P. fluorescens and a Moraxella sp. A number of microorganisms belonging to various taxonomical groups were selected for sensitivity studies to CO sub(2) in atmospheres containing 25 to 100% CO sub(2). Growth rates of the organisms at 4 and 25 C were determined by measuring the rate of increase in diameter of colonies spotted on prepoured trypticase soy agar (TSA) plates. A significant decrease in the growth rates of all bacteria was caused by CO sub(2), and its effects were greatly enhanced by low temperatures. However, no clearcut lines of CO sub(2)-susceptibility, according to microbial taxonomy, could be established. The effects of CO sub(2) on the cellular fatty acid composition of a Moraxella sp. and a Vibrio sp., and of P. fluorescens were also determined. A trend showing an increased degree of unsaturation was observed for all organisms growing in CO sub(2)-enriched environments. The overall chain length of the major fatty acids showed a decrease in the Moraxella sp. and the Vibrio sp., whereas a small increase occurred in P. fluorescens. Exposure of bacterial cells to CO sub(2) also altered the pool of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates in all three microorganisms. Accumulation of metabolic products at several intermediate steps in the TCA cycle indicated that inhibition of several specific enzyme systems did take place. Since isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP) seemed especially sensitive to CO sub(2), this enzyme was selected for further studies. When assayed in 9.0 mM CO sub(2), a 7% drop in activity was observed. The inhibition was found to be uncompetitive with respect with CO sub(2) (DBO). Leeming,-R.; Bate,-N.; Hewlett,-R.; Nichols,-P.D., Discriminating faecal pollution: A case study of stormwater entering port Phillip Bay, Australia, WATER-QUALITY-INTERNATIONAL-'-98-PART-8-WASTEWATER:-SEWERS Grabow,-W.O.K.; Dohmann,-M.; Haas,-C.; Hall,-E.R.; Lesouef,-A.; Orhon,-D.; Van-Der-Vlies,-A.; Watanabe,-Y.; Milburn,-A.; Purdon,-C.D.; Nagle,-P.T.-(eds.) PO-Box-800 Elsevier-Science-Ltd,-Pergamon vol. 38, no. 10 pp. 15-22 This investigation was designed to provide preliminary information to the Environment Protection Authority concerning the input of faecal matter to stormwater drains in the Rippleside area of Geelong, Victoria. Results derived from the combined use of sterol biomarkers (e.g. coprostanol and 24-ethylcoprostanol) and four sub-groups of bacterial indicators (e.g. thermotolerant coliforms, E. coli, faecal streptococci and enterococci) indicated that during wet weather, all sites sampled were affected by significant human faecal contamination. Ratios of coprostanol to bacterial indicators were similar to those for samples collected from nearby sewer mains. During dry weather, there were still severely elevated levels of faecal contamination based on bacterial indicators, but correspondingly low concentrations of faecal sterols suggesting minimal human or herbivore faecal contamination. The origin of the majority of the faecal pollution in dry weather therefore remains to be fully explained. It is clear from this and related studies that the combined measurement of faecal sterols and bacterial indicators can greatly assist distinguishing sources of faecal pollution. It is also shown for aquatic environments that the measurement of coprostanol or other single indicators alone, is inadequate to fully discern faecal contamination from human sources. Lin,-S.; Evans,-R.L.; Beuscher,-D.B., Bacteriological assessment of Spoon River water quality., Appl-Microbiol 1974 vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 288-297 Data from a study of 5 stations on the Spoon River, III, during June 1971 through May 1973 were analyzed for compliance with Illinois Pollution Control Board's water quality standards of a geometric mean limitation of 200 faecal coliforms per 100 ml. This bacterial limit was achieved approx 20 per cent of the time during June 1971 through May 1972, and was never achieved during June 1972 through May 1973. Ratios of faecal coliform to total coliform are presented. By using faecal coliform-to-faecal streptococcus ratios to sort out faecal pollution origins, it was evident that a concern must be expressed not only for municipal wastewater effluents to the receiving stream, but also for nonpoint sources of pollution in assessing the bacterial quality of a stream. Lio-Po,-G.D.; Albright,-L.J.; Michel,-C.; Leano,-E.M., Experimental induction of lesions in snakeheads (Ophicephalus striatus) and catfish (Clarias batrachus) with Aeromonas hydrophila, Aquaspirillum sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Streptococcus , J-Appl-Ichthyol; Z-Angew-Ichthyol 1998 vol. 14, no. 1-2, pp. 75-79 Isolates of Aquaspirillum sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Streptococcus sp. recovered from epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS)-affected snakeheads (Ophicephalus striatus) in Thailand as well as an isolate of Aeromonas hydrophila recovered from EUS-affected snakeheads in the Philippines were characterized and identified. Each isolate was injected intramuscularly (IM) into healthy catfish (Clarias batrachus) and snakeheads (O. striatus). Results showed in tests with C. batrachus that 24 h after injection, Aquaspirillum sp., Pseudomonas sp., Streptococcus sp. and A. hydrophila induced slight, slight, moderate and severe dermomuscular necrotic lesions, respectively. Among O. striatus, only A. hydrophila induced severe lesions. Streptococcus sp. induced slight lesions 2 days post-injection which healed rapidly, while Aquaspirillum sp. and Pseudomonas sp. did not manifest any dermal lesions. Experiments indicated that among the four EUS-associated test bacteria, A. hydrophila was the most pathogenic, inducing severe dermomuscular necrotic lesions in intramuscularly injected catfish (C. batrachus) and snakeheads (O. striatus). Differences in the susceptibility of O. striatus and C. batrachus to Aquaspirillum sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Streptococcus sp. were evident. Furthermore, this is the first evidence of the association between Aquaspirillum sp. and diseased fish. Mahasneh,-A.M.; Al-Sayed,-H.A., Seasonal incidence of some heterotrophic aerobic bacteria in Bahrain pelagic and nearshore waters and oysters, Int.-J.-Environ.-Stud. 1997 vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 301-312 Concentrations of four bacterial groups namely coliforms, Vibrio cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and Faecal streptococci in sea water and oyster (Pinctada radiata) were investigated from March 1991 to March 1992 at nearshore site and a pelagic site. In seawater, coliforms were isolated in high numbers during September-October at both sites, while in oyster coliforms were higher than those in water all through the study period, with no definite pattern. Both V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus were present in seawater and oysters during the warmer months (June, July, September and October). In oysters, V. cholerae was more prominent than V. parahaemolyticus. Faecal streptococci were detected mainly in waters of both sites during September and October. Peak counts in oysters at both sites occurred in July; and they were five times greater at the pelagic site. In general, most bacteria were isolated from the pelagic waters and oyster samples, and they were highest during the warmer months. Some disappeared totally during February and March. Water temperature was found to have greater influence on distribution of different bacteria in water and oysters, compared with other environmental factors. Malard,-F.; Reygrobellet,-J.-L.; Winiarski,-T., Physico-chemical
and biological dynamics of a sewage-polluted limestone aquiferm Ecologie
Souterraines, ., Internationale-Revue-der-Gesamten-Hydrobiologie [Int-Rev-Gesamt-Hydrobiol]
1997 vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 507-523
The spatio-temporal pattern of groundwater contamination at a 500 m super(2) fractured limestone site polluted with sewage effluent was investigated over two years. In the context of a previously defined conceptual groundwater flow model, a multidisciplinary approach involving the collection of physico-chemical, bacteriological and biological (macro- and meiofauna) data was developed. Results showed that much of the sewage-polluted water infiltrated rapidly through some large subvertical fractures at the site and circulated with little or no contaminant attenuation through the solution-enlarged parts of a bedding joint. In such preferential contaminant paths, groundwater had low physico-chemical and bacteriological "stability", highest average contaminant concentrations, and a high epigean organism component. Observation of the spatial distribution of organisms a short period after flooding also suggested that contaminants circulating through these conductive fractures entered the adjacent small-sized fissure matrix of the saturated zone. In this small aperture region of the site that was recharged by slow infiltrations of sewage-polluted surface water, groundwater had a greater physico-chemical and bacteriological "stability", lowest average contaminant concentrations, and a high hypogean organism component. This lower sensitivity to surface pollution was partly due to attenuation processes such as retention of fecal indicator bacteria or nitrification of effluent ammonium which occurred in slow-moving water parts of the unsaturated zone. McFeters,-G.A.; Bissonnette,-G.K.; Jezeski,-J.J.; Thomson,-C.A.; Stuart,-D.G., Comparative survival of indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens in well water., Appl-Microbiol 1974 vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 823-829 The comparative survival of various fecal indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens was studied in a stable well water supply by using membrane chambers. There was more variation in the 29 coliform cultures and they died more rapidly, as a group, than the 20 enterococcus cultures that were examined. The comparative survival of the organisms tested follows: Aeromonas sp > the shigellae (Shigella flexneri, S. sonnei, and S. dysenteriae) > fecal streptococci > coliforms = some salmonellae (Salmonella enteritidies ser. paratyphi A and D, S. enteritidis ser. typhimurium) > Streptococcus equinus > Vibrio cholerae > Salmonella typhi > Streptococcus bovis > Salmonella enteritidis ser. paratyphi B. S. bovis had a more rapid die-off then did S. equinus, but both had significantly shorter half-lives than the other streptococci. The natural populations of indicator bacteria from human and elk fecal material declined similarly to the pure cultures tested, whereas the die-off of fecal streptococci exceeded the coliforms from bovine fecal material. Messley,-K.E.; Kingsbury,-P.J., The fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus ratio as a measure of bacterial contamination and indicator of its source in the Des Moines River., Proc-Iowa-Acad-Sci 1973 vol. 80, no. 2, pp. 74-77 The fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus (FC/FS) ratio and total coliform test were used in attempts to determine the degree and source of bacterial contamination present in the Des Moines River between April 18 and Nov 14, 1970. There were no predictable changes in the FC/FS ratio as the river passed from a rural area, through a metropolitan district, and on to another rural area; however, the total coliform counts did show variation with distance. The failure of the FC/FS ratio to indicate source of contamination was probably due to the highly varying external conditions acting upon the river. Miyazaki,-T.; Kubota,-S.S.; Kaige,-N.; Miyashita,-T., A histopathological study of streptococcal disease in tilapia., Fish-Pathol 1984 vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 167-172 A histopathological study was made on an infection of Streptococcus sp. in cultured tilapia, Sarotherodon niloticus, which occurred in warm water ponds during the winter of 1980. The external signs were dermal haemorrhage and exophthalmia. The internal signs were dropsy, epicarditis, peritonitis, pale-colored liver, splenomegary and nodule formation in gonads. On histopathological examination, the bacterial dissemination was systemic. Abscesses and granulomas were found to develop in the infected orbital adipose tissue of the exophthalmic eyes. Infiltration of bacteria-laden macrophages and granuloma formation were observed in the infected lesions of the epicardium, capsules of the liver and spleen, peritoneum, stomach, intestine, brain, ovary and testis. Mohamed,-K.S., Heterotrophic marine bacteria as supplementary feed for larval Penaeus monodon Karnataka, India, Naga 1996 vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 23-26 The findings are presented of a study conducted to use autochthonously obtained, nonpathogenic heterotrophic marine bacteria as a substitute feed for microalgae in rearing larval Penaeus monodon. Eleven strains were isolated: Micrococcus (MCC), Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Bacillus (two strains; BAC-1, BAC-2), Pseudomonas (two strains; PSM-1, PSM-2), Vibrio parahemolyticus, V. fluviatilis, Moraxella (MOR) and Flavobacterium. Six nonhemolytic strains were then chosen for the Penaeus monodon larval feed trials: BAC-1, BAC-2, PSM-1, PSM-2, MCC and MOR. The study demonstrates that bacterial biomass could be further investigated as a partial substitute for microalgae in penaeid shrimp larval rearing. Muniesa,-M.; Jofre,-J.; Lucena,-F., Occurrence and numbers of bacteriophages and bacterial indicators in faeces of yellow-legged seagull (Larus cachinnans), Letters-in-Applied-Microbiology [Lett-Appl-Microbiol] 1999 vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 421-423 Faeces from feral populations of yellow-legged seagulls from the northern coastal area of Catalonia (North-eastern Spain) contained variable amounts of faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, somatic coliphages, F-specific bacteriophages and Bacteroides fragilis bacteriophages. Occurrence and numbers of bacterial indicators and bacteriophages in the faeces of yellow-legged seagulls are in the ranges described in the faeces of different animals. The ratios between numbers of bacterial indicators and numbers of bacteriophages are much higher in faeces of seagulls than in treated or raw sewage contributed by out-falls of the same area. Newman,-S.G., Bacterial vaccines for fish, ANNU.-REV.-FISH-DIS. 1993 vol. 3, pp. 145-185 Vaccination of fish for the prevention of specific bacterial diseases affecting commercially reared fish species has had a significant impact on this industry. Almost all of the vaccines available at this time are bacterins or formalin-inactivated whole cell suspensions, some with adjuvants. The first vaccines to be successfully commercialized were those against Vibrio anguillarum, Vibrio ordalii, and Yersinia ruckeri in the late 1970s. Developed initially for the salmonid industry, these bacterins are now routinely used worldwide on many species of fish. Though in some areas salmon farming has flourished without the use of these vaccines, in most areas they have been essential to the economic viability of aquaculture operations. Vaccines against Vibrio salmonicida, a pathogen of salmonids, Aeromonas salmonicida, a pathogen of salmonids and carp, and Edwardsiella ictaluri, a pathogen of channel catfish have also been commercialized and are in widespread use. A number of other bacterins have been the subject of research and some of them may eventually be available. Though a bacterin against Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a pathogen affecting species of fish reared in warmwater has been successfully tested, as have bacterins against Aeromonas hydrophila and Edwardsiella tarda, the serologic heterogeneity of these groups of organisms make it unlikely that widely utilizable vaccines will be available in the near future. Those pathogens that appear to be serologically more homogeneous, including Flexibacter columnaris, Pasteurella piscicida, and Streptococcus species affecting fish, will likely end up in commercially available bacterins in the not too distant future. The use of a new generation of adjuvants in conjunction with automated Antibacterial activity agaist cariogenic bacteria and inhibition of insoluble glucan production by free fatty acids obtained from dried Gloiopeltis furcata geometric mean limitation of 200 faecal coliforms per 100 ml. This bacterial limit was achieved approx 20 per cent of the time during June 1971 through May 1972, and was never achieved during June 1972 through May 1973. Ratios of faecal coliform to total coliform are presented. By using faecal coliform-to-faecal streptococcus ratios to sort out faecal pollution origins, it was evident that a concern must be expressed not only for municipal wastewater effluents to the receiving stream, but also for nonpoint sources of pollution in assessing the bacterial quality of a stream. Ringoe,-E.; Gatesoupe,-F.J., Lactic acid bacteria in fish: A review, AQUACULTURE 1998 vol. 160, no. 3-4, pp. 177-203 Fish are continuously exposed to a wide range of microorganisms present in the environment, and the microbiota of fish have been the subject of several reviews. This review evaluates lactic acid bacteria in fish, and focuses on the several investigations that have demonstrated that Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, and Carnobacterium belong to the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy fish. However, it is well known that the population level of lactic acid bacteria associated with the digestive tract is affected by nutritional and environmental factors like dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids, chromic oxide, stress and salinity. Pathogenic lactic acid bacteria such as Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Carnobacterium and Lactococcus have been detected from ascites, kidney, liver, heart and spleen. Some antibiotic treatments and vaccinations have been proposed to cure or prevent these diseases that seem, however, to spread with the development of fish culture. It has also been reported that some lactic acid bacteria isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of fish can act as probiotics. These candidates are able to colonise the gut, and act antagonistic against Gram-negative fish pathogens. These harmless bacteriocin-producing strains may reduce the need to use antibiotics in future aquaculture. Roberts,-R., Snapping at the heels of Success, Fish-Farming-International [Fish-Farm-Int] 1998 vol. 25, no. 10, p. 43 Australia is probably the leading country in the crocodile business. Along with Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, Australia produces the most valuable crocodile, the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), as well as the Australian freshwater species. There are major disease problems with crocodiles, but only when they are kept in less than suitable conditions. Usually they are about the healthiest farmed animals I have ever worked with. The only serious problems I have seen have been secondary infections of fight lesions with Aeromonas or Streptococcus bacteria, and occasional septicaemias in animals on the margin of their minimum temperature. Crocodile culture has the advantage that not only is the meat product saleable but its skin and 'parts' byproducts have even greater intrinsic value. Robertson,-P.A.W.; O'-Dowd,-C.; Burrells,-C.; Williams,-P.; Austin,-B., Use of Carnobacterium sp. as a probiotic for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum), Aquaculture 2000 vol. 185, no. 3-4, pp. 235-243 A strain of Carnobacterium sp., isolated from the intestine of Atlantic salmon, was evaluated for potential use as a probiotic for salmonids. In vitro studies demonstrated antagonism against Aeromonas hydrophila, A. salmonicida, Flavobacterium psychrophilum, Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida, Streptococcus milleri, Vibrio anguillarum and V. ordalii but not towards Debaryomyces hansenii, Janthinobacterium lividum, V. alginolyticus, V. harveyi or Yersinia ruckeri. Feeding salmonids with diets containing the probiotic revealed that the isolate remained viable in the gastrointestinal tract. After reverting to feeding with control diets, the isolate was re-isolated from the intestine up to 4 and 10 days in fingerlings and fry, respectively. After feeding with the probiotic for 14 days, challenge by cohabitation indicated effectiveness at reducing disease caused by A. salmonicida, V. ordalii and Y. ruckeri but not V. anguillarum. Romalde,-J.L., Genetic analysis of turbot pathogenic Streptococcus parauberis strains by ribotyping and random amplified polymorphic DNA .Acuicultura, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela Spain, FEMS-Microbiology-Letters [FEMS-Microbiol-Lett] 1999 vol. 179, no. 2, pp. 297-304 Ribotyping and RAPD profiling of a collection of 18 Streptococcus parauberis strains isolated from diseased turbot in Galicia (NW Spain) was performed in order to analyze the possible genetic variability within this bacterial fish pathogen. In addition, the value of this technique for intraspecific classification and epidemiological studies was evaluated. Ribopatterns of DNA digested with three endonucleases and hybridized with a cDNA probe complementary to highly conserved sequences in the 16S and 23S rRNA genes showed a great homogeneity among the turbot isolates. Compared with ribotyping, RAPD appeared to be a reliable and fast technique for discriminating between isolates of S. parauberis on the basis of their farm of isolation and, therefore, represents a powerful tool for epidemiological studies of this fish pathogen. Sadhukhan,-P.C.; Ghosh,-S.; Chaudhuri,-J.; Ghosh,-D.K.; Mandal,-A., Mercury and organomercurial resistance in bacteria isolated from freshwater fish of wetland fisheries around Calcutta, ENVIRON.-POLLUT. 1997 vol. 97, no. 1-2, pp. 71-78 Mercury-resistant bacteria belonging to the genera Bacillus, Escherichia,
Klebsiella, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Sarcina, Shigella, Staphylococcus
and Streptococcus were isolated from gills and guts of fresh water fish
collected from wetland fisheries around Calcutta, India, contaminated with
mercury compounds. The total number of bacteria, as well as Hg-resistant
bacteria, were always higher in guts than gills. Bottom-dwelling fish contained
higher number of bacteria, including Hg-resistant bacteria, than surface
and middle water dwelling fish. They belonged either to narrow-spectrum
or to broad-spectrum Hg-resistant groups and they also possessed other
heavy metal and antibiotic resistant properties. In the presence of toxic
levels of HgCl sub(2), phenylmercuric acetate (PMA) and methylmercuric
chloride (MMC), the lag in growth of the bacterial strains gradually increased
with increasing concentration of Hg-compounds. Narrow-spectrum Hg-resistant
bacterial strains volatilized only HgCl sub(2) from the liquid medium in
the range of 64-89%, whereas the broad-spectrum group exhibited a high
level of HgCl sub(2) (80-94%), PMA (72-84%) and MMC (64-80%) volatilizing
capacity with inducible mercuric reductase and organomercurial lyase enzyme
activities in their cell-free extracts. Cell-free extracts prepared from
narrow-spectrum Hg-resistant bacterial strains induced by HgCl sub(2) exhibited
Hg super(+2)-dependent NADPH oxidation, indicating the presence of only
mercuric reductase enzyme.
Sakai,-M., Current research status of fish immunostimulants, Aquaculture 1999 vol. 172, no. 1-2, pp. 63-92 Immunostimulants are valuable for the control of fish diseases and may be useful in fish culture. The immunostimulatory effects of glucan, chitin, lactoferrin and levamisole for fish and shrimp have been reported. Nutritional factors such as Vitamins B and C, growth hormone and prolactin have also been reported to be immunostimulators. These immunostimulants mainly facilitate the function of phagocytic cells and increase their bactericidal activities. Several immunostimulants also stimulate the natural killer cells, complement, lysozyme and antibody responses of fish. The activation of these immunological functions is associated with increased protection against infectious disease. Resistance to bacterial pathogens such as Vibrio anguillarum, V. salmonicida, Aeromonas salmonicida, Yersinia rukeri and Streptococcus spp. and to parasitic infections such as white spot disease can be increased by administration of immunostimulants, but not to intracellular pathogens such as Renibacterium salmoninarum and Pasteurella piscicida. The most effective method of administration of immunostimulants to fish is by injection. Oral and immersion methods have also been reported, but the efficacy of these methods decreases with long-term administration. Overdoses of several immunostimulants induce immunosuppression in fish. The side effects of immunostimulants have not been well-studied. Growth-promoting activity has been noted in fish or shrimp treated with glucan or lactoferrin. Immunostimulants can overcome immune suppression by sex hormones. Thus, the influence of immunostimulants in mature fish should be studied. In conclusion, immunostimulants can reduce the losses caused by disease in aquaculture; however, they may not be effective against all diseases. For the effective use of immunostimulants, the timing, dosages, method of administration and the physiological condition of fish need to be taken into consideration. Sangjindavong,-M., N-nitroso compounds and bacteria related to the
formation of nitrosamine in Thai salted fish, Asia-Pacific-Fishery-Commission.-Summary-report-of-and-papers-presented-at-the-tenth-session-of-the-Working-Party-of-Fish-Technology-and-Marketing.-Colombo,-Sri-Lanka,-4-7-June-1996
James,-D.G.-ed. 1997 pp. 125-129
In the first study, 50 strains of bacteria were isolated from 16 samples of dried and salted fish collected in Thailand. Eighty percent of these bacteria were identified as gram-positive, motile, and immotile cocci; the remainder were gram-negative bacilli. The genera of the cocci were Planococcus, Streptococcus, Micrococcus, Pediococcus and Staphylococcus . The rod-shape bacteria were of the genera Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium and Achromobacter . In the second study, 7 species of dried and salted fish with red or yellow meat were chosen to determine N-nitroso compounds and bacteria. From the study, N-nitroso compounds were found in 5 samples, and 5 species of bacteria were isolated from dried and salted fish. Among the 5 species of bacteria, Micrococcus roseus was classified as nitrate-reducing bacteria. The 3 species Bacillus pantothenticus, B. circulans and Staphylococcus epidermidis might reduce nitrate to nitrite in some cases. M.luteus was the only one species which was classified as non-nitrate reducing bacteria. In order to prevent nitrosamine formation in dried and salted fish, nitrate compounds such as potassium nitrate should not be added during processing. Shatti,-J.A.; Abdullah,-T.H.A., Marine pollution due to wastewater discharge in Kuwait, MARINE-POLLUTION-AND-EFFLUENT-MANAGEMENT Al-Muzaini,-S.; Hamoda,-M.F.; Henze,-M.-(eds.) PO-Box-800-Kidlington-Oxford-OX5-1DX-UK Elsevier-Science-Ltd,-Pergamon vol. 40, no. 7 pp. 33-39 The extent of marine pollution and sea beach contamination due to occasional untreated wastewater discharges through emergency outfall of different pumping stations was investigated. Pumping station A 3 has been selected for investigation in the present study. Fecal coliform and Fecal Streptococci as indicators and Salmonella the pathogenic bacteria were examined in the water and sand samples collected from Benid Al-Qar Sea beach. Water samples and sand samples were collected for a span of 8 months. Sampling of sand was done at distances of 5 m and 10 m on both left and right sides away from the opening of emergency outfall. Shell samples were also collected to ascertain the presence of any contaminant. The analytical data showed that occasional discharge of wastewater resulted in the accumulation of 710 colonies for F. coliform, 20 colonies for F. Streptococci and 125-colonies/100 ml for Salmonella in sand samples collected from 5 m distance on the left side of an emergency outfall. On moving to 10 m distance the intensity of accumulation was reduced about 50% i.e. 360 colonies, 10 colonies and 75 colonies/100 ml for F. coliform, F. Streptococci and Salmonella respectively. The intensity of accumulation was further reduced in the sand samples collected from the right side of the emergency outfall opening. Gradually all these accumulated types of bacterial cells showed inactivation due to solar radiation exposure and other oceanographic factors. Within a month no growth of any indicator or pathogenic microbe was noticed in the sand samples. Again the F. coliform bacteria started appearing in the sand samples collected during 7 months of the project due to discharge of untreated wastewater under the emergency situation, i.e. renovation of sewage networks. Again the same trend of inactivation of bacterial cells was noticed. Thus Kuwait Sea beaches are not threatened of marine pollution due to occasional discharge of wastewater. Shoemaker,-C.A.; Evans,-J.J.; Klesius,-P.H., Density and dose: factors affecting mortality of Streptococcus iniae infected tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Aquaculture 2000 vol. 188, no. 3-4, pp. 229-235 Fish density and infectious dose have been suspected to affect the mortality rate of cultured fish exposed to Streptococcus iniae. We determined the effects of S. iniae dose and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) density on streptococcal disease mortality. Tilapia with a mean weight of 12.7 g were used and maintained at 25 plus or minus 1 degree C in aquaria supplied with flow-through water at 0.5 l/min with a 12 h light:12 h dark cycle. Density and dose were evaluated by stocking tilapia at low (5.6 g/l), medium (11.2 g/l) and high (22.4 g/l) density and administering 2.5 x 10 super(7), 5 x 10 super(7) and 1 x 10 super(8) colony-forming units (CFU)/ml of S. iniae by immersion (5 tanks per density and dose, 45 total tanks). Mortality was monitored for 28 days post challenge. A significant difference (P<0.05) was seen in mortality when comparing low (4.8%) and medium (28.4%) and low and high (25.6%) density treatments. No significant difference was observed when comparing medium- and high-density treatments. Two-way analysis of variance demonstrated density had a significant effect on S. iniae mortality (P=0.0001). Doses had little effect on mortality, except at high density by dose which did show a significant interaction (P=0.001). We have demonstrated density has a significant effect on streptococcal disease mortality in tilapia exposed to S. iniae by immersion. We also evaluated infection of susceptible tilapia using dead/moribund S. iniae infected fish (i.e., cohabitation by placing five dead /moribund fish into tanks for 48 h). No significant difference in mortality pattern was observed between immersion in 8.6 x 10 super(7) CFU/ml S. iniae (37.6% and 34.6%) and cohabitation with S. iniae infected tilapia (24.0%). Although, densities used were less than in most water-reuse production systems (30-290 g/l), tilapia density of 11.2 g/l and above was an important factor in mortality of tilapia infected with S. iniae. A health-management strategy would be to reduce fish density thus lowering streptococcal disease mortality. Smith,-R.J.; Twedt,-R.M.; Flanigan,-L.K., Relationships of indicator and pathogenic bacteria in stream waters., J-Water-Pollut-Control-Fed 1973 vol. 45, no. 8, pp. 1736-1745 A seasonal quantitative bacteriological examination of the Saline River and the Huron River in southeastern Michigan was conducted from Aug 1969 through July 1970. Salmonellae were isolated when the fecal coliform conc was as low as 52/100 ml in the Saline River and 4/100 ml in the Huron. The fecal coliform conc was greater than 200 /100 ml in 2/3 of the samples from the Saline and in 1/3 of the samples from the Huron that were positive for salmonellae. Samples from both rivers exhibited seasonal trends in the distribution of fecal coliform to fecal streptococcus concs between 4.0 and 0.7 and less than 7.0. The relationship of Salmonella survival resembled that of fecal coliforms. Stoffregen,-D.A.; Backman,-S.C.; Perham,-R.E.; Bowser,-P.R.; Babish,-J.G., Initial disease report of Streptococcus iniae infection in hybrid striped (sunshine) bass and successful therapeutic intervention with the fluoroquinolone antibacterial enrofloxacin, J.-WORLD-AQUACULT.-SOC. 1996 vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 420-434 Streptococcal infection (Streptococcus iniae) was diagnosed sequentially in two tanks of hybrid striped bass Morone saxatilis male x M. chrysops female (Sunshine bass) grown in a commercial freshwater recirculation facility in western Massachusetts. The pathogen was isolated in the laboratory, biochemically and morphologically characterized, and antibacterial sensitivities determined. Streptococcus iniae-induced lesions in the Sunshine bass were characterized at the gross and histopathological levels. Initial treatment with oxytetracycline was unsuccessful. Based on sensitivity results, enrofloxacin-medicated feed was dosed at 10 mg/kg body weight for 10 d, while a subsequent trial was conducted at 5 mg/kg body weight for 10 d. Mortality of fish subsided promptly following initiation of enrofloxacin therapy, yielding a final mortality in the initial tank of 10.83% (control tank 55.5%) and in the second tank of 16.97% (control tank 39.8%). Tissue enrofloxacin residues, detected via a microbiologic bioassay, revealed greater quantities and longer duration of residues in various tissues from the 5-mg as compared to the 10-mg trial, potentially the result of adverse feed palatability. Enrofloxacin appears to have excellent potential as an antibacterial agent for treating susceptible bacterial diseases of Sunshine bass. Sugita,-H.; Kawasaki,-J.; Deguchi,-Y., Production of amylase by the intestinal microflora in cultured freshwater fish, LETT.-APPL.-MICROBIOL. 1997 vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 105-108 The amylase-producing ability of the intestinal microflora in cultured specimens of ayu, carp, channel catfish, Japanese eel and tilapia was determined. Mean viable counts of aerobes and anaerobes ranged from 1.1 x 10 super(6) to 3.7 x 10 super(8) cfu/g and from 1.3 x 10 super(3) to 1.6 x 10 super(8) cfu/g, respectively. Aeromonas spp. and Bacteroidaceae were predominant in four to five fish species. Of 206 strains examined, 65 (31.6%) produced greater than or equal to 0.01 U amylase/ml. The percentage of producers differed among families and genera of bacteria and fish species. While 56% of the anaerobes produced amylase, only 20% of the aerobes did. More than 50% of Aeromonas, Bacteroidaceae and Clostridium strains produced amylase efficiently while Acinetobacter, coryneforms, Enterobacteriaceae, Moraxella, Plesiomonas and Streptococcus strains did not. High amylase production ( greater than or equal to 0.05 U/ml) was found in 12 strains, 11 from Aeromonas and one Pseudomonas. The percentage of high amylase producers in Japanese eel was lower than the other four fish (2-30%). These results strongly suggest that the amylase produced by the intestinal microflora play an important role in the digestion of starch in freshwater fish to some extent. Sugita,-H.; Kumazawa,-J.; Deguchi,-Y., Production of chitinase and beta -Nacetylglucosaminidase by intestinal bacteria of Pinnipedian animals, LETT.-APPL.-MICROBIOL. 1996 vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 275-278 The chitinase- and beta -N-acetylglucosaminidase(GlcNAcase)-producing ability of intestinal bacteria from Pinnipedian animals was determined using fluorogenic 4-methylumbelliferone glycosides of N-acetylglucosamine oligosaccharides. Intestinal microflora of a single Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus), three California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and three South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) were characterized by a predominance of isolates of the Bacteroidaceae and Enterobacteriaceae families and the genus Clostridium. Of the 711 isolates tested 26.0, 10.0 and 8.7% could hydrolyse 4-MU(GlcNAc) sub(1), 4-MU(GlcNAc) sub(2) and 4-MU(GlcNAc) sub(3), respectively. This result suggests that beta -GlcNAcase producers occur at a higher density than do chitinase producers. Moreover, beta -GlcNAcase, and to a lesser degree, chitinase seem to be efficiently produced by facultative anaerobes in the Cape fur seal and the California sea lion, and by both facultative and obligate anaerobes in the South American sea lion. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to report that isolates of the family Bacteroidaceae and the genus Streptococcus produce chitinase and/or beta -GlcNAcase. Swenshon,-M.; Laemmler,-C.; Siebert,-U., Identification and molecular characterization of beta-hemolytic streptococci isolated from harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) of the North and Baltic Sea, J.-Clin.-Microbiol. 1998 vol. 36, no. 7, pp. 1902-1906 The present study was designed to identify and comparatively investigate
35 beta-hemolytic streptococci isolated from stranded harbor porpoises
(Phocoena phocoena) or from animals caught in fishing nets of the North
and Baltic Seas. According to biochemical and serological data and to lectin
agglutination tests with the lectin of Arachis hypogaea, all 35 isolates
could be classified in Lancefield's serological group L and could be identified
as Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae. All 35 group L streptococci
were uniformly sensitive to most of the antibiotics tested. To further
analyze the epidemiological relationship, the isolates were subjected to
macrorestriction analysis of their chromosomal DNA by pulsed-field gel
electrophoresis. Digestion of the chromosomal DNA with the restriction
enzymes SmaI and ApaI revealed that most of the group L streptococci seemed
to be apparently identical or related. These results indicate that one
clone or at least related group L streptococcal clones play an important
role for infections of harbor porpoises of the North and Baltic Seas. This
might possibly be caused by a direct transfer of the bacteria from animal
to animal.
Trust,-T.J.; Bartlett,-C.H., Occurrence of potential pathogens in water containing ornamental fishes., Appl-Microbiol 1974 vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 35-40 The bacterial population of the water supplied with ornamental fish purchased from retail outlets was examined qualitatively and quantitatively. As many as 10 super(9) viable aerobic organisms per 100 ml were present with faecal coliform counts as high as 10 super(5) per 100 ml. Citrobacter, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio were isolated from 75 per cent or more of the samples whereas Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Enterobacter, Flavobacterium and Streptococcus were isolated from 45 to 65 per cent of the samples. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Edwardsiella tarda and Klebsiella pneumoniae were also isolated. Varga,-L.; Szigeti,-J.; Oerdoeg,-V., Effect of a Spirulina platensis biomass and that of its active components on single strains of dairy starter cultures, Milchwissenschaft 1999 vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 187-190 The effect of a dried Spirulina platensis cyanobacterial biomass enriched with trace elements on the rate of acid development by pure cultures of Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus CH-1, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CH-2, L. acidophilus La-5 and Bifidobacterium bifidum Bb-12 was evaluated in milk. All starter culture strains were stimulated significantly (P<0.05), although to varying degrees. The components of the cyanobacterial biomass probably responsible for the stimulation were tested in laboratory simulations, wherein the effect of trace elements (iodine, zinc, selenium), vitamins (B complex, C, A, E) and nitrogenous compounds (peptone, adenine, hypoxanthine) was investigated. It could be concluded that the stimulation of the above-mentioned strains by the cyanobacterial biomass was mostly due to peptone, adenine and hypoxanthine whereas the results of the experiments with B. bifidum showed that only peptone had a significantly stimulatory effect (P<0.05) on the strain tested. The Sp. platensis biomass that was rich in trace elements, vitamins, sulphur-containing amino acids and unsaturated fatty acids, also had a highly beneficial effect on the nutritional value of milk, thus providing a new opportunity for manufacture of functional dairy products. Weinstein,-M.R.; Litt,-M.; Kertesz,-D.A.; Wyper,-P.; Rose,-D.; Coulter,-M.; McGeer,,Invasive infections due to a fish pathogen, Streptococcus iniae, N.-ENGL.-J.-MED. 1997 vol. 337, no. 9, pp. 589-594 Streptococcus iniae is a pathogen in fish, capable of causing invasive disease and outbreaks in aquaculture farms. During the winter of 1995-1996 in the greater Toronto area there was a cluster of four cases of invasive S. iniae infection in people who had recently handled fresh, whole fish from such farms. We conducted a prospective and retrospective community-based surveillance for cases of S. iniae infection in humans. To obtain a large sample of isolates, we studied cultures obtained from the surface of fish from aquaculture farms. Additional isolates were obtained from the brains of infected tilapia (oreochromis species). All the isolates were characterized by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). During one year, our surveillance identified a total of nine patients with invasive S. iniae infection (cellulitis of the hand in eight and endocarditis in one). All the patients had handled live or freshly killed fish, and eight had percutaneous injuries. Six of the nine fish were tilapia, which are commonly used in Asian cooking. Thirteen additional S. iniae isolates (2 from humans and 11 from infected tilapia) were obtained from normally sterile sites. The isolates from the nine patients were indistinguishable by PFGE and were highly related to the other clinical isolates. There was substantial genetic diversity among the 42 surveillance isolates from the surface of fish, but in 10 isolates the PFGE patterns were identical to those from the patients with S. iniae infection. S. iniae can produce invasive infection after skin injuries during the handling of fresh fish grown by aquaculture. We identified a clone of S. iniae that causes invasive disease in both humans and fish. Wiggins,-B.A., Discriminant analysis of antibiotic resistance patterns in fecal streptococci, a method to differentiate human and animal sources of fecal pollution in natural waters, APPL.-ENVIRON.-MICROBIOL. 1996 vol. 62, no. 11, pp. 3997-4002 Discriminant analysis of patterns of antibiotic resistance in fecal streptococci was used to differentiate between human and animal sources of fecal pollution in natural waters. A total of 1,435 isolates from 17 samples of cattle, poultry, human, and wild-animal wastes were obtained, and their ability to grow in the presence of four concentrations of five antibiotics (chlortetracycline, halofuginone, oxytetracycline, salinomycin, and streptomycin) was measured. When the resulting antibiotic resistance patterns were analyzed, an average of 74% of the known isolates were correctly classified into one of six possible sources (beef, chicken, dairy, human, turkey, or wild). Ninety-two percent of human isolates were correctly classified. When the isolates were pooled into four possible categories (cattle, human, poultry, and wild), the average rate of correct classification (ARCC) increased to 84%. Human versus animal isolates were correctly classified at an average rate of 95%. Human versus wild isolates had an ARCC of 98%, and cattle versus poultry isolates had an ARCC of 92%. When fecal streptococci that were isolated from surface waters receiving fecal pollution from unknown origins were analyzed, 72% of the isolates from one stream and 68% of the isolates from another were classified as cattle isolates. Because the correct classification rates of these fecal streptococci are much higher than would be expected by chance alone, the use of discriminant analysis appears to hold promise as a method to determine the sources of fecal pollution in natural waters. Wyer,-M.D.; Kay,-D.; Dawson,-H.M.; Jackson,-G.F.; Jones,-F.; Yeo,-J.; Whittle,-J., Delivery of microbial indicator organisms to coastal waters from catchment sources, UNCERTAINTY,-RISK-AND-TRANSIENT-POLLUTION-EVENTS.Beck,-M.B.;Schilling,-W.-eds. 1996 vol. 33, no. 2 pp. 37-50 The introduction of ultraviolet disinfection of sewage effluent in Jersey has served to focus attention on other sources of faecal pollution responsible for subsequent compliance failures in coastal water quality in St Aubin's Bay. Studies of microbial concentrations (total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci) in streams draining to the bay showed concentrations to be elevated by an order of magnitude or more following rainfall. Detailed monitoring of indicator organisms during hydrograph events showed rapid increases in concentration with flow associated with the rising limb of the hydrograph and transport of suspended solids. Microbial budget estimates suggested that between 42 and 97% of microbial delivery was associated with high flows, which account for just 20% of the total discharge. Budgets also revealed the relative importance of different catchment inputs, revealing the low bacterial input associated with UV treated effluent which provided 48% of the total volume discharged to the bay. Implications for water quality standards are discussed with reference to catchment management planning. Wyer,-M.D.; Kay,-D.; Fleisher,-J.M.; Salmon,-R.L.; Jones,-F.; Godfree,-A.F.; Jackson,-G.; Rogers,-A., An experimental health-related classification for marine waters, Water-Research [Water-Res] 1999 vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 715-722 Detailed epidemiological studies in the UK have shown a dose-response relationship between water quality and gastroenteritis experienced by bathers. Other predictors of gastroenteritis found in the studies provide comparative levels of risk attributable to, for example, certain types of food. The statistical distribution of faecal streptococci, based on log sub(10) mean and log sub(10) SD, is used to describe the exposure of the bathing population. The exposure distribution is used in combination with the dose-response relationship and other independent risk factors as a framework for a health-related "standards" system. The standard system defines a series of water quality thresholds which take into account variation in water quality. These categories could provide a basis for both "health-related" water quality objectives and advice to the public on potential health risks from bathing. Yoshida,-T.; Yamada,-Y.; Sakai,-M.; Inglis,-V.; Xie,-X.J.; Chen,-S.-C.; Kruger,-R., Association of the cell capsule with anti-opsonophagocytosis in beta -hemolytic Streptococcus spp. isolated from rainbow trout, J.-AQUAT.-ANIM.-HEALTH 1996 vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 223-228 The role of the cell capsule in the virulence of beta -hemolytic Streptococcus spp. isolated from rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss was investigated. Capsulated bacterial cells had a more hydrophilic surface than noncapsulated bacteria and showed higher virulence to rainbow trout when given intraperitoneally. Capsulated cells were more resistant to opsonophagocytosis and the chemiluminescent response of trout macrophages. Yuasa,-K.; Kitancharoen,-N.; Kataoka,-Y.; Al-Murbaty,-F.A., Streptococcus iniae, the Causative Agent of Mass Mortality in Rabbitfish Siganus canaliculatus in Bahrain, Journal-of-Aquatic-Animal-Health [J-Aquat-Anim-Health] 1999 vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 87-93 Streptococcus iniae was found to be responsible for mass mortality in whitespotted rabbitfish Siganus canaliculatus in Bahrain. External signs were listless swimming and dark coloration. Internally, ascites, hepatomegaly, and splenomegaly were observed. Identification of the bacterium was based upon biochemical, physiological, serological tests and DNA-DNA hybridization. Host susceptibility was examined in five fish species. Rabbitfish was the species most susceptible to streptococcal infection. Borneo mullet Liza macrolepis and brown-spot grouper Epinephelus coioides were also susceptible to the bacterium, whereas the seabream Acanthopagrus latus (known in Bahrain as black seabream) and one-spot bream Diplodus sargus were not. Zlotkin,-A.; Hershko,-H.; Eldar,-A., Streptococcus iniae from wild fish to cultured marine fish, Applied-and-Environmental-Microbiology [Appl-Environ-Microbiol] 1998 vol. 64, no. 10, pp. 4065-4067 Streptococcus iniae was isolated from diseased wild fish collected near
a mariculture facility where gilthead sea bream and European sea bass exhibited
a similar infection. Species-specific PCR and ribotyping confirmed that
wild and cultured fish were infected by a single S. iniae clone. Wild fish
are therefore potential amplifiers of pathogenic S. iniae strains.
This section provides useful Internet sites related to Streptococcus Bacteria and fish kill. The Streptococcus
The Streptococcus
Invasive Infection with Streptococcus iniae -- Ontario, 1995-1996
Developing New Vaccines Prevent Fish Kills
TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL EASTERN FISH HEALTH WORKSHOP ROYALPAVILLION
RESORT, ATLANTIC BEACH, NC MARCH 18 - 20, 1997
Effect Of Streptococcus Infection On Oxytetracycline
DISEASES OF FISH
Streptococcus iniae Publications
Streptococcus Bacteria spreading illness-causing bacteria to humans
Bacterial infection caused by Streptococcus iniae.
This site provides you with all articles written in the local newspapers
about fish kill catastrophe
|