Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless gas with a rotten-egg odor. Some people can smell hydrogen sulfide at very low levels, as 0.5 parts per billion (ppb) in air. Most hydrogen sulfide in the air comes from natural sources. It is produced when bacteria break down plant and animal material, often in stagnant waters with low oxygen content such as bogs and swamps. Volcanoes, hot springs and underwater thermal vents also release hydrogen sulfide. Industrial sources of hydrogen sulfide include petroleum and natural gas extraction and refining, pulp and paper manufacturing, rayon textile production, chemical manufacturing and waste disposal. Some bacteria change calcium sulfate, the major component of wallboard, into hydrogen sulfide. If construction and demolition debris contain large quantities of wallboard hydrogen sulfide can be formed. Production is greatest when the wallboard is finely crushed and when there is little oxygen, such as the debris is buried and soaked with water. Therefore, hydrogen sulfide is known as “sewer gas” because it is often produced by the decay of waste material. Hydrogen sulfide gas also can be found in groundwater, especially in wells near oil fields wells that penetrate shale or sandstone.

H2S is extremely toxic, and is corrosive to metals such as iron, zinc, copper, lead and cadmium. It reacts with water to form sulfuric acid that corrodes lead-based paint, concrete, metals and sewer lines. (See cover page, the photograph show a sewer pipe destroyed by corrosion).

This information source guide on “ Hydrogen Sulfide Gas” focuses on latest studies conducted on H2S in two main sources, groundwater and wastewater treatment plant. Information in the guide is drawn from international databases, water resources database (file 117), Enviroline (file40) and MEDLINE (file154). The information source guide is divided into three sections; (1) annotated bibliography (2) questions and answers about Hydrogen sulfide, and (3) selected Internet sites on H2S.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) in Groundwater

Taste and odour removal from an urban groundwater establishment - a case study

Ortenberg, E ; Groisman, L ; Rav Acha, C

Water Science and Technology vol. 42, no. 1-2, pp. 123-128; 2000

Abstract: A deep groundwater well was established in a village near Tel-Aviv, in order to supply drinking water for its 30,000 inhabitants. Although all water characteristics were within the range permitted by the Israeli regulations, operators received complaints about a funny taste and a rotten-egg odour in the water. This was attributed to the presence of 0.38 mgL super(-1) hydrogen sulfide. Removing the odour by the usual method of aeration was impossible because of the populatedsurroundings. Therefore it was decided to examine chemical oxidants for taste and odour removal. A treatment with 8 mgL super(-1) of chlorine

successfully oxidized hydrogen sulfide but the complaints continued. This was attributed to the formation of elemental sulfur, which is converted into polysulfide that may hydrolyze to regenerate the odourous hydrogen sulfide. Treatment with 2 mgL super(-1) of chlorine dioxide successfully eliminates odour completely, but produces chlorite and chlorate which are above the permitted levels. A partial solution to this problem was found by a consequential treatment with 2 mgL super(-1) of ClO sub(2) for 10 min. followed by 1.5 mgL super(-1) of chlorine (30 min.). In this case the chlorite is reduced substantially to be within the permitted level. In addition, such treatmentregenerates some of the chlorine dioxide thereby increasing its residual. The odourous H sub(2)S can also be eliminated with 3 mgL

super(-1) of ozone. Advantages and disadvantages of the above treatments are discussed.

Microbial H sub(2) Cycling Does Not Affect delta super(2)H Values of Ground Water

Landmeyer, J E ; Chapelle, F H ; Bradley, P M

Ground Water vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 376-380, 2000

Abstract: Stable hydrogen-isotope values of ground water ( delta super(2)H) and dissolved hydrogen concentrations (H sub(2(aq))) were quantified in a petroleum-hydrocarbon contaminated aquifer to determine whether the production/consumption of H sub(2) by subsurface microorganisms affects ground water delta super(2)H values. The range of delta super(2)H observed in monitoring wells sampled (-27.8 ppt to -15.5 ppt) was best explained, however, by seasonal differences in recharge temperature as indicated using ground water delta super(18)O values, rather than isotopic exchange reactions involving the microbial cycling of H sub(2) during anaerobic petroleum-hydrocarbon biodegradation. The absence of a measurable hydrogen-isotope exchange between microbially cycled H sub(2) and ground water reflects the fact that the amount of H sub(2) available from the anaerobic decomposition of petroleum hydrocarbons is small relative to the amount of hydrogen present in water, even though milligram per liter concentrations of readily biodegradable contaminants are present at the study site.Additionally, isotopic fractionation calculations indicate that in order for H sub(2) cycling processes to affect delta super(2)H values of ground water, relatively high concentrations of H sub(2) (>0.080 M)would have to be maintained, considerably higher than the 0.2 to 26 nM present at this site and characteristic of anaerobic conditions in general. These observations suggest that the conventional approach of

using delta super(2)H and delta super(18)O values to determine recharge history is appropriate even for those ground water systems characterized by anaerobic conditions and extensive microbial H sub(2) cycling.

Distribution of sulfate and organic carbon in a prairie till setting: Natural versus industrial sources

Fennell, J ; Bentley, L R

Water Resources Research vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 1781-1794, 1998

Biodegradation of sulfolane in soil and groundwater samples from a sour gas plant site

Fedorak, P M ; Coy, D L

Dep. Biol. Sci., Univ. Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada

Environmental Technology vol. 17, no. 10, pp. 1093-1102; 1996

Abstract: Sulfolane is used as a solvent in processes for the removal of Hsub(2)S from sour gas. Because of its high water-solubility, soil contamination by sulfolane quickly leads to groundwater contamination.To assess the possibility of using bioremediation to remove this

compound, samples of soils, groundwaters, and sandstone from a contaminated aquifer at a gas plant were used in laboratory studies to determine if they contained sulfolane-degrading microbial populations. Aerobic shake-flask slurry cultures were incubated at 26 degree and 8

degree C, and solid phase soil bioreactors, approximating bioventing, were incubated at 8 degree C to test sulfolane biodegradability. Each environmental sample yielded microbial populations that degraded sulfolane. Supplementation with N and P stimulated degradation. The most rapid rates of degradation in slurry cultures incubated at 26 degree C and 8 degree C were 8 and 4 mg L super(-1) d super(-1),respectively. In the soil column bioreactors supplemented with N and P, the rates of sulfolane biodegradation were between 0.5 and 0.7 mg kg super(-1) d super(-1).

Ground Water

Nelson, G L ; Munter, J A

Cold Regions Hydrology and Hydraulics. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. 1990. p 317-348, 15 fig, 29 ref., 1990.

Abstract: Groundwater in cold regions differs from that in warm regions, not by virtue of any changes in its adherence to physical laws of groundwater flow, but by its interaction with frozen ground and freezing conditions in the surface environment. Permafrost, which underlies about 85 percent of Alaska, 50 percent of the Soviet Union and Canada, and 22 percent of China, is a confining layer that transmits only slight amounts of water. Movement of water occurs along thin films of liquid water adsorbed on soil grains, even at temperatures well below freezing. Groundwater is classified as subpermafrost or suprapermafrost, depending on whether it is below or above the permafrost. In the zone of continuous permafrost, suprapermafrost water is available seasonally but is susceptible to contamination. Subpermafrost water is expensive to develop and commonly brackish to saline, particularly in coastal environments. Therefore, large springs in limestone terrains are a major water resource in the Arctic. Taliks underlying rivers do not contain flowing groundwater, and are not a major water supply except in rivers such as the Mackenzie which flow throughout the winter. Coastal communities in the Arctic also have additional water supply problems caused by shallow salt water. In the zone of discontinuous permafrost, communities near rivers generally have no problem developing a water supply, although water commonly must be treated to remove iron, manganese, methane, and hydrogen sulfide. Base flow in streams is a poor indicator of aquifer properties because much of the winter discharge of groundwater freezes and does not contribute to base flow. The formation of icings in stream channels may cause high water table conditions in the winter, when it would not be expected. Water supply wells generally function well with moderate frost protection. Observation wells, however, require additional work to continually adjust to the frozen ground phenomenon termed 'frost jacking.' Water quality in cold regions is commonly

affected by reducing conditions, high concentrations of organics and reduced microbial activity. Permafrost can be thawed either by removing insulating vegetation or by regional or global climate warming, but the consequences on water supplies, waste disposal activities, engineered structures, and biological habitats may be significant.

Quality of the Ground Water around the Lower Reaches of the Miya River

Sugiyama, M ; Fujii, K ; Maeda, H ; Maruyama, T ; Kumada, H

Bulletin of National Research Institute of Aquaculture YKHKDU No. 15, p 29-36, 1989. 2 fig, 1 tab, 15 ref. English summary. 1989.

Abstract: Since the establishment of the Inland station (Tamaki campus) of the National Research Institute of Aquaculture in 1979, the rearing water for experimental fishes has been supplied by four artesian wells in the campus. Prior to the establishment of the campus, assessment of the quality of groundwater around the campus had been done in 1973 and 1974. The quality of the artesian well water were reassessed in March of 1987, in order to examine changes in the quality with the passage of years. The levels of ammonium nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and manganese which are toxic to fish were below the level

that is detrimental to fish health. The levels of total iron in the well water in 1987 were slightly higher than those in 1974. The increase in iron levels may be caused by rust release from pumping equipment submerged in each well. The present results indicate that, in spite of the increase in the pumped volume of groundwater around the Tamaki campus, the quality of artesian well water in the campus is almost unchanged compared with those in 1974, and that the water is suitable for fish culture. (Author 's abstract)

Distribution and Source of Barium in Ground Water , Cattaraugus Indian Reservation, Southwestern New York

Moore, R B ; Staubitz, W W

Water-Resources Investigations Report 84-4129, 1984. 17 p, 4 fig, 4 tab, 15 ref.

Abstract: High concentrations of dissolved barium have been found in ground water from bedrock wells on the Seneca Nation of Indians Reservation on Cattaraugus Creek in southwestern New York.Concentrations in 1982 were as high as 23.0 milligrams per liter , the

highest found reported from any natural ground-water system in the world. The highest concentrations are in a bedrock aquifer and in small lenses of saturated gravel between bedrock and the overlying till. The bedrock aquifer is partly confined by silt, clay, and till. The high barium concentrations are attributed to dissolution of the mineral barite (BaSO4), which is present in the bedrock and possibly in overlying silt, clay, or till. The dissolution of barite seems to be controlled by action of sulfate-reducing bacteria, which alter the BaSO4 equilibrium by removing sulfate ions and permitting additional barite to dissolve. Ground water from the surficial, unconsolidated deposits and surface water in streams contain little or no barium. Because barium is chemically similar to calcium, it probably could be removed by cation exchange or treatments similar to those used for water softening.

Ground - Water Geochemistry: Arsenic in Landfills

Hounslow, A W

Ground Water Vol 18, No 4, p 331-333, July/August, 1980. 1 Fig, 10 Ref. 1980

Abstract: Arsenic leaking from landfills commonly exists in +3 (arsenite) and +5 (arsenate) valence states, depending on the oxidation-reduction state of the groundwater and the presence of iron. Arsenite ion is 60 times as toxic to humans as arsenate ion. Three types of aqueous environments may be described: aerobic--dissolved oxygen present, hydrogen sulfide absent, unsaturated zone present, arsenate soluble, ferric hydroxide insoluble, arsenate adsorbed anaerobic--dissolved oxygen absent , hydrogen sulfide absent, mildly reducing, shallow groundwater, arsenite soluble ferrous iron soluble anaerobic--dissolved oxygen absent, hydrogen sulfide present, deeper groundwater, arsenic sulfides insoluble, heavy metal sulfarsenites insoluble, iron sulfide insoluble, coprecipitated arsenic sulfides. The most likely environmental pollution source is the mildly reducing anaerobic water, in which iron and toxic arsenite are most prevalent and most mobile.

Chemical Quality of Ground Water on Cape Cod, Massachusetts

Frimpter, M H ; Gay, F B

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 79-65 (open-file report) 1979. 11 p, 6 Fig, 2 Plates, 2 Tab, 9 Ref.1979

Abstract: Cape Cod is a 440 square mile hook-shaped peninsula, which extends 40 miles into the Atlantic. Freshwater in Pleistocene sand and gravel deposits is the source of supply for nearly 100 municipal and thousands of private domestic wells. Most ground water on Cape Cod is of good chemical quality for drinking and other uses. It is characteristically low in dissolved solids and is soft. In 90 percent of the samples analyzed, dissolved solids were less than 100 mg/l(milligrams per liter) and pH was less than 7.0. Highway deicing salt, sea-water flooding due to storms, and saltwater intrusion due to ground-water withdrawal are sources of sodium chloride contamination.Chloride concentrations have increased from 20 to 140 mg/l, owing to saltwater intrusion at Provincetown 's wells in Truro. In Yarmouth, contaminated ground water near a salt-storage area contained as much as 1,800 mg/l chloride. Heavy metals, insecticides, and herbicides were not found at concentrations above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's recommended limits for public drinking-water supplies, but iron and manganese in some samples exceeded those limits. Ninety percent of 84 samples analyzed for nitrate reported as nitrogencontained less than 1.3 mg/l and 80 percent contained 0.5 mg/l or less of nitrate as nitrogen. Water containing nitrogen in excess of 0.5 mg/l has probably been affected by municipal or domestic sewage or fertilizer, and water with less than this amount may have been affected by them.

Obstacles to Geothermal Development

Budiansky, S P

Environmental Science and Technology Vol 14, No 3, p 255-257, March, 1980. 1 Fig.

Abstract: Legal, financial, and environmental problems associated withgeothermal development are minor compared with problems associated with the development of other energy resources. However, these problems must be solved if delays are to be avoided. Direct use of geothermal energy, unlike high-temperature applications, does not cause air pollution but can result in water pollution. The use of injection wells can minimize ground water pollution, water table lowering and land subsidence. The deterioration of ground water quality surrounding an injection well over a 30 year period has been simulated by researchers at EG and GIdaho. Direct use applications are also faced with laws and regulations which were based on the concept of high-temperature,electric-generating, and revenue producing resources. These laws do not apply to low-temperature resources. With some modification, existing water law can provide the basis for direct use development. For example, geoheating would be classified as ' reasonable use ' of water resources, and appropriate rights over the entire volume of the resource should not be required for closed systems which return the water they use.

The Effect of Organic Carbon on the Concentrations of Iron and Hydrogen Sulfide in Ground Water

Stoufer, R N

1975

NOTES: Available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield VA 22161 as PB-291 555, Price codes: A05 in paper copy, A01 in microfiche. M. A. thesis December 1975. 85 p, 18 fig, 10 tab, 54 ref, append. OWRT B-077-MO(3), 14-31-0001-3608.

Abstract: Twenty water supply wells in northern Missouri were sampled to determine the relationships between dissolved organic carbon and microorganisms on iron and sulfide concentrations in unpolluted ground water. The concentrations of ferrous iron, sulfide, organic carbon, major ions and the pH and Eh were determined on each water sample. Organic carbon and dissolved ferrous iron were readily measurable in samples. Organic carbon was generally present at low levels (2 mg/l). Even though thee was no evidence of coliform or streptococcus microorganisms none of the water samples was sterile. Two to six generaof non-pathogenic bacteria were present in each sample, the majority being nitrate reducers. Sulfate-reducing bacteria were detected in half of the samples. The data suggest that there is a poor correlationbetween the redox potential and dissolved organic carbon in ground water. The organic carbon content of the rocks appears to be a more important factor in controlling the redox potential of ground water.The data for nitrate-ammonia and sulfate-sulfide indicate that many ofthe water samples were not in internal equilibrium with respect to oxidation-reduction reactions.

Ground Water Resources of the Bedrock Aquifers of the Denver Basin Colorado

Romero, J C

1976. p 109 12 plates, 28 fig, 7 tab, 66 ref, 2 append.

Abstract: The bedrock aquifers of the Denver Basin contain vast quantities of groundwater suitable, in most localities, for all beneficial purposes. The major problems which will confront both administrators and users of this groundwater include those associated with declining water levels and deterioration of water quality. Areas in which current water level declines are rapid enough to cause concern are the South Platte River corridor, the Strasburg-Byers-Deer Trail area, and parts of metropolitan Denver. Water quality problems of the Denver Basin 's bedrock aquifers are confined predominantly to the Laramie Formation and Laramie-Fox Hill aquifer. Water from these units is locally known to contain troublesome amounts of hydrogen sulfide, methane, iron, floride and sodium. Many of these problems can probably be eliminated by avoiding multi-aquifer completions, particularly in the case of mixing Laramie-Fox Hill aquifer water with Dawson Group water. Successful management of the Denver Basin bedrock aquifers will require the collection and utilization of additional data. The importance of additional electric logs, geologic sample logs and aquifer test data cannot be over-emphasized. Also of major importance are water quality testing, an observation well network and accurate measurements of water withdrawn from the aquifer. If managed with caution, the basin can supply the water needs of several generations.

Ground Water Supplies Of Northeastern Illinois -- Quality Problems With Well Waters

Larson, T E

Journal American Water Works Association, VOL 56, NO 2, P 169-172, February 1964.

Abstract: most problems in well water quality are inherent and not Receptive to correction by any means other than external treatment.These problems are usually related to the natural hardness or iron Content of the water from the aquifer or from one of the contributing Aquifers. Perhaps the most annoying problems are due to the iron Content of the water. At times the occurrence of such problems is Inexcusable or may be condoned only because of lack of information or Adequate interpretation of information. Another less frequently Encountered but more objectionable problem is that of hydrogen sulfide In well waters. This 'rotten-egg' odor almost always demands treatment. Case studies of these problems, their causes and corrective measures taken in 3 aquifers are presented. It is concluded that in many cases the pollutants enter the well from outside the producing zone due to improper or nonexistent sealing however, it should be remembered that preventive measures taken during construction are usually superior to and less costly than corrective measures.

Gas in Ground Water

Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol 61, No 8, P 413-414, August, 1969.

Abstract: a summary of gas characteristics in ground water is given in order to acquaint water utilities employees and others with its nature, origins, and hazards. both methane and hydrogen sulfide are commonflammable gases found in ground water, the latter being less dangerous because it has a distinctive odor. Examples of isolated explosions attributed to gas in ground water occurring in Michigan and New York State, as well as a possible one in Louisiana, are mentioned. The inimum concentration of methane in water sufficient to produce an explosive methane-air mixture (5-15 per cent methane in a gas-air mixture) above

the water from which it evolves can be as little as 1.1 ppm at normal conditions, in poorly ventilated air spaces. Under these conditions explosions can occur in shower stalls, water treatment plants, storage reservoirs, water tanks, and other poorly ventilated air spaces. Suffocation is another hazard of gas in ground waters. Safety measures for decreasing the hazards include aeration of the water before use, and adequate ventilation of air spaces around the well in places where the water is to be used.

Spectrophotometric Microdetermination of Sulfate

Davis, j b ; lindstrom, f

Analytical chemistry, vol. 44, no. 3, p 524-532, March 1972. 11 fig, 1 Tab, 22 ref.

Abstract: sulfate reduction to hydrogen sulfide is the basis for the Spectrophotometric method which has been developed for the selective Determination of sulfate in the 0-10 and 0-100 microgram (ppm in water) Ranges. Aqueous sampl Es are treated with a mixture of hydriodic acid, Acetic anhydride, and sodium hypophosphite and heated in a modified Countercurrent reaction apparatus to evolve hydrogen sulfide. The gas Is swept by nitrogen into a buffered solution of a ferric Ion and 1,10-phenanthroline, where it reduces the ferric ion to the ferrous Ion. A bright orange tris (1,10-phenanthroline - iron ii) complex forms And is measured spectrophotometrically at 510 nm. Over twenty common Ions and three sulfonated surfactants were tested to determineInterference. Only nitrite and those ions capable of yielding hydrogen Sulfide under the same conditions interfered while the sulfonated Surfactants did not interfere.

Ground water for planning in northwest Ohio, a study of the carbonate Rock aquifers

Ohio Dept. Of Natural Resources, Columbus. Div. Of Water 1970. 123 P, 73 Fig, 10 Tab, 30 Ref.

Abstract: the northwest Ohio water development plan, prepared by the Ohio water commission (1967), recommended a drilling and testing program to evaluate the quantity and quality of the ground water available in the northwest Ohio area. seventy-six large diameter limestone and dolomite wells were drilled, tested, and analyzed as the basis for this two and one-half year study. the limestone-dolomite aquifer in northwest Ohio currently yields 32.69 million gallons per day to municipal andindustrial wells. large additional quantities are pumped for irrigation and domestic supplies. estimates of well-field capacities in various undeveloped areas have been included in this report as a guide for potential development. the quality of the ground water is equally as important as quantity in planning for future use. softening is recommended for ground-water supplies throughout the study area. hydrogen sulfide is often present in varying amounts. however, in nearly all instances, objectionable concentrations of hydrogen sulfidecan be removed by simple and inexpensive processes. ground-water development in some portions of the area would be restricted by quality considerations, with present treatment methods. even considering the quality limitations, the potential of the carbonate aquifer in northwest ohio far exceeds the present ground-water development.

Hydrogen Sulfide in Wastewater

Removal of H2S by Metal Ferrites Produced in the Purification of Metal-Bearing Waste Water . Study of the Reaction Mechanism

Barrado, E ; Prieto, F ; Lozano, B ; Arenas, F J ; Medina, J

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution vol. 131, no. 1-4, pp. 367-381, 2001

Abstract: Waste water polluted with heavy metals can be successfully purified by precipitation of the metals from an alkaline solution containing iron (II), giving rise to a ferrite sludge. The solid metal ferrites obtained in this manner can be used to remove hydrogen sulphide from a gas stream. Based on a Taguchi experimental design,ferrite solid particle and pore size, and the temperature resulting in maximum retention of H sub(2)S by the solid were optimised. Under the optimum conditions, predicted by the method, each gram of ferrite was able to retain 0.274 g H sub(2)S. In addition, a ferrite containing a known lead concentration, obtained by the precipitation method underoptimal conditions of pH, temperature and Fe/Pb ratio, was used to study the exothermic H sub(2)S retention reaction. The chemical reaction occurring between the ferrite and the H sub(2)S was investigated by characterisation of the compounds before (Pb sub(0.04)Fe super(II) sub(0.96) Fe super(III) sub(2)O sub(4).nH sub(2)O solids composed of Pb sub(x)Fe sub(3-x)O sub(4), magnetite Fe sub(3)O sub(4) and hydrated lead oxide PbO sub(n).H sub(2)O) and after (PbS, PbSO sub(4), S, FeS sub(2) and alpha -FeO(OH)) the retention process.

Biological prevention and removal of hydrogen sulphide in sludge at Lillehammer Wastewater Treatment Plant

Einarsen, A M ; Aesoey, A ; Rasmussen, A I ; Bungum, S ; Sveberg, M

Water Science and Technology vol. 41, no. 6 183 pp 2000

ABSTRACT: Formation of H sub(2)S and other odorous compounds in sludge can be prevented efficiently by controlled dosage of nitrate. Lillehammer WWTP (N) had problems with malodour that originated mainly from the sludge treatment. High levels of H sub(2)S caused poor working conditions, and resulted in an overloaded hypochlorite scrubber. In addition, neighbours were complaining. Controlled dosing was necessary to avoid increased loads on the nitrogen removal process and floating sludge in the thickener, and to keep the H sub(2)S concentration and chemical costs low. This resulted in considerably better working environment and eliminated complaints from neighbours. A cost-benefit for Nutriox registered Septicity Control has been performed.

The ability of selected chemicals for suppressing odour development in rising mains

Hobson, J ; Yang, G

Water Science and Technology vol. 41, no. 6 183 pp. 2000

Abstract: The use of Nutriox registered and ferric chloride to suppress hydrogen sulphide and odour generation in rising mains is evaluatd in a pilot scale study. Without chemical dosing the hydrogen sulphide built up to the commonly predicted levels after six months. Thereafter, addition of both Nutriox registered and ferric chloride to sewage entering the rising main totally suppressed the formation of H sub(2)S. Nutriox also nearly totally suppressed the odour measured olfactometrically. The use of ferric salt at near stoichiometric levels effectively removed dissolved sulphide. Odour removal was generally good though on occasions reduction of dissolved sulphide levels to below 0.1 mg/l was not guaranteed to be accompanied by near total suppression of odour generation. The use of ferric ions at stoichiometric levels, after H sub(2)S and odours have formed in the rising main, also eliminated the dissolved sulphide. When used in this way, a significant residual odour potential, 110,000 ou/m super(3) remained in the sewage. The simultaneous reductions of odour and hydrogen sulphide observed in this study implied an apparent threshold odour concentration of 0.1 ppb for H sub(2)S, significantly lower than most values quoted in the literature.

Bioscrubbing, an effective and economic solution to odour control at wastewater treatment plants

Hansen, N G ; Rindel, K

Water Science and Technology vol. 41, no. 6 183 pp; 2000

Abstract: Based on odour nuisances from the Damhusaaen Wastewater Treatment Plant in Copenhagen, it was decided that the critical sections of the inlet structure to the treatment plant should be covered and enclosed. The ventilation air, 6000 m super(3)/h, is cleaned in a bioscrubber process. These installations have reduced the odour in the surroundings of the treatment plant to the extent that it is no longer noticeable. A cleaning efficiency for hydrogen sulphide of >99% and low residual emissions, <0.1 mg/m super(3) of organic sulphur compounds, are obtained in the bioscrubber. The consumption of the sodium hydroxide for neutralising the sulphuric acid formed is stoichiometric in relation to the amount of sulphur compounds removed. This results in relatively low operating costs corresponding to half toone fourth of the operating costs of a chemical scrubber at normal influent concentrations. In addition, the bioscrubber has proven reliable with only little maintenance and low space requirements. A bioscrubber can thus be considered an environment-friendly and competitive alternative to chemical scrubbers and biofilters.

A bioscrubber for hydrogen sulphide removal

Koe, L C C ; Yang, F

Water Science And Technology vol. 41, no. 6 183 pp, 2000

Abstract: A study was carried out to investigate the feasibility of using treated wastewater effluent to support the operation of a fixed-film bioscrubber for odorous H sub(2)S removal. A laboratory scale fixed-film bioscrubber was set up using bacteria of the genus Thiobacillus. The bacteria were isolated from a sample of municipal sludge, cultured in the laboratory and immobilised onto the scrubber's plastic packing media by an immersion method. Series of experimental runs were carried out to determine the optimal operational conditions for the bioscrubber. Results indicated that for the gas retention times equal to or exceeding five seconds, and with a H sub(2)S loading rate below 90 g-H sub(2)S/m super(3)-hr, the bioscrubber could remove H sub(2)S and odour with efficiencies greater than 99%. The behaviour of the bio-scrubber under various operation scenarios are presented and discussed in this paper.

Hydrogen Sulphide Dispersion Modelling - Urban And Rural Case Studies

Parsons, S A ; Smith, N ; Gostelow, P ; Wishart, J

Water Science And Technology vol. 41, no. 6 183 pp, 2000

Abstract: Sewage treatment works are subject to a range of parameters governing the quality of effluent and sludge produced. An additional product from treatment plants is odorous air. The causes, source, formation and measurement of odour are widely reported and reasonably

understood. An important factor in the design and management of works is the prediction of such odours. The importance of this work is explained by the possibility of future legislation controlling odour at wastewater plants. Odour dispersion modelling involves the on-site measurement or prediction of the emission rate of an odorous compound, often hydrogen sulphide, and the subsequent prediction of the atmospheric concentrations of that compound downwind of the source. This paper used the USEPA models SCREEN3 and ISCST to determine hydrogen sulphide contour concentrations emitted from unit processes at two different sewage treatment works in the United Kingdom. Results indicated that the first site, located in an urban catchment, emitted hydrogen sulphide at varying rates. The predicted downwind concentrations using "urban" dispersion coefficients correlated well with measured concentrations. At the second site, emission rates were less variable. Results from the second site produced the best correlation using "rural" dispersion coefficients. Results from both sites suggest that the definition of the surrounding land use is critical in predicting odour dispersion. The problem of determining land use is highlighted and the importance of correct meteorology is stressed. Both sites were predicted to be capable of producing hydrogen sulphide concentrations at a detectable level outside the site boundary. Odour complaints were therefore anticipated. The operational performance of a unit treatment operation is proposed as a major influence on hydrogen sulphide emission. The idea of a large database of expected emission rates from individual unit treatment processes is proposed as an input for dispersion modelling and as an aid to future design.

A review of the odour impact component of the Tasman pulp and paper air discharge permit

Vaczi, S

Ogilvie, D (ed )

ISBN: 1-877134-11-2

314 pp; 1997

Abstract: The investigation into the environmental impacts of Tasman's odorous emissions, including an assessment of mitigation options, cost the company close to $1.5 million and three years' work. An extensive monitoring system was installed to supply meteorological data, and olfactometry was used to measure the odorous emissions from the mill. This combined information provided the necessary inputs to enable dispersion modelling to be performed successfully. The work resulted in very good agreement between model predictions and ambient TRS monitors. Community annoyance levels were predicted for different mitigation options using the dispersion model concentration predictions and the dose-effect relationship between annoyance levels and the 99.5% odour concentrations. The validity of this method was verified by a community survey of odour annoyance. It was found that hydrogen sulphide is not contributing to the perceived intensity of the mill odour and the meteorology of the region plays a dominant role at triggering odour complaints. A steam stripper was installed to remove odorous compounds and methanol from a dominant odorous discharge to the aerated lagoon treatment system.

Biotechnological treatment of sulfate-rich wastewaters

Lens, P N L ; Visser, A ; Janssen, A J H ; Pol, L W H ; Lettinga, G

Critical Reviews In Environmental Science And Technology vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 41-88

1998

Abstract: Sulfate-rich wastewaters are generated by many industrial processes that use sulfuric acid or sulfate-rich feed stocks (e.g., fermentation or sea food processing industry). Also, the use of reduced sulfur compounds in industry, that is, sulfide (tanneries, kraft pulping), sulfite (sulfite pulping), or thiosulfate (pulp bleaching, fixing of photographs), contaminates wastewaters with sulfate. A major problem for the biological treatment of sulfate-rich wastewaters is the production of H sub(2)S. Gaseous and dissolved sulfides cause physical(corrosion, odor, increased effluent COD) or biological (toxicity) constraints that may lead to process failure. H sub(2)S is generated by sulfate-reducing bacteria, in both anaerobic and aerobic (anoxic microenvironments) wastewater treatment systems. No practical methods

exist to prevent sulfate reduction. Selective inhibition of SRB by molybdate, transition elements, or antibiotics is unsuccessful at full scale. Selection of a treatment strategy for a sulfate-rich wastewater depends on the aim of the treatment. This can be (1) removal of organic matter, (2) removal of sulfate, or (3) removal of both. Theoretically, wastewaters with a COD/sulfate ratio of 0.67 or higher contain enough COD (electron donor) to remove all sulfate by sulfate-reducing bacteria. If the ratio is lower, addition of extra COD, for example, as ethanol or synthesis gas (a mixture of H sub(2), CO sub(2), and CO) is required. Complete COD removal in wastewaters with a COD/sulfate ratio of above 0.67 also requires

methanogenic COD degradation. Methods to reduce sulfide toxicity and to allow optimal COD removal are presented. Sulfate can be removed from the wastestream by the coupling of asulfide oxidation step to the sulfate reduction step. Sulfur can be recovered from the wastewater in case H sub(2)S is partially oxidizedto insoluble elemental sulfur.

Effect of distillery effluent on the dissolved organic matter, hydrogen sulfide and salinity of channel water

Boominathan, R ; Khan, S M M N

environment and ecology vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 52-55, 1995

Abstract: The present study deals with the level and effect of dissolved organic matter, hydrogen sulfide and salinity in Uyyakondan channel water before and after the dissolution of distillery effluent from nearby distillery. The three parameters obviously increased after the

entry of effluent which put adverse effects on the ecosystem.

Evaluation of chemicals to control the generation of malodorous hydrogen sulfide in waste water

Tomar, M ; Abdullah, T H A

Water Research vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 2545-2552, 1994

Abstract: The effect of hydrogen peroxide, sodium/calcium hypochlorite and ferrous/ferric salts on hydrogen sulfide dissolved in waste water were investigated to establish an effective odour control system for Kuwait Sewage Networks. The waste water samples were collected from the inlet structure of main pumping station with pressure pipelines and analyzed for dissolved sulfide and pH before and after addition of chemicals individually and in combination under controlled laboratory conditions. The waste water contained dissolved sulfide in the range of 18 to 25 mg/l and pH ranged between 7.2 and 7.8. Various concentrations of above mentioned chemicals were tried to determine the accurate chemical

requirement for oxidation or precipitation of dissolved sulfide in waste water. The reaction temperature was maintained at 35 degree C ( plus or minus 2 degree C), the normal temperature of waste water in Kuwait during summer. To oxidize 1 g of sulfide 1.25, 2.0 and 1.8 g hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite were required respectively. To remove 1 g of sulfide by precipitation with ferrous sulfate and ferric salt solution, 8 g and 4 g ferrous and ferric salt were required respectively under laboratory investigations. A combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite was also studied to control malodorous hydrogen sulfide in waste water. The addition of sodium hydroxide with sodium hypochlorite in waste water reduced the demand of hypochlorite 50%. This procedure was found to be cost effective and best suited for the warm climate of Kuwait and was implemented in the field at a screw conveyor type lifting station with gravity sewer pipelines. When sodium hypochlorite was injected withoutshock loadings of sodium hydroxide 46% reduction of dissolved sulfides was recorded and it was increased to 57% with shock loadings of sodium hydroxide, though the quantity of sodium hypochlorite was reduced to half than the former case. Similarly, 45 and 70% reduction in the emission of gaseous hydrogen sulfide was recorded with NaOCl injection without and with NaOH shock loading respectively. The cost comparison of all the chemicals when applied in field is also presented.

Large Scale Anaerobic-Aerobic Treatment of Complex Industrial WasteWater Using Biofilm Reactors

van Leeuwen, H L J M ; Hols, J ; Weltevrede, R ; Mulder, A ; Heijnen, J J Gist-brocades

Water Science and Technology WSTED4, Vol. 23, No. 7/9, p 1427-1436, 1991.

Abstract: Warm concentrated industrial wastewaters are preferably treated in an anaerobic reactor for reasons of energy generation and low surplus sludge production. However, there are problems to be solved in the practical application of the technology. These problems include a low growth rate of the microorganisms, their low settling rate process instability, and the need for after-treatment of the noxious anaerobic effluent which often contains NH4(+) and HS(-). An investigation was undertaken to determine the use of biomass immobilized on small suspended carriers as a suitable means to overcome these problems.

Research at Gist-brocades, Delft, The Netherlands, led to the construction of a full scale plant which utilized an anaerobic pretreatment process and an aerobic posttreatment process. The

anaerobic pretreatment process used a liquid/solid fluidized bed as the reactor. Results revealed that the anaerobic fluidized bed system offered an acceptable alternative in that the process enabled a good anaerobic treatment at high loads and short liquid residence times for

a normal load. The aerobic posttreatment system consisted of an aerobic airlift suspension reactor. The use of this system has shown the process to be efficient for high rate aerobic purification. High biomass concentrations and purification capacities in a difficult wastewater were possible to achieve.

Waste Water Treating Process

Leonard, J P ; Haritatos, N J ; Law, D V

Chemical Engineering Progress Vol. 80, No. 10, p 57-60, October, 1984. 3 Fig, 3 Tab, 1 Ref.

Abstract: The Chevron Waste Water Treating Process (WWT) is an economical method of treating sour water which produces high quality hydrogen sulfide suitable for feeding a sulfur recovery unit, anhydrous ammonia suitable for sale and stripped water suitable for reuse or discharge. The WWT process considered consists of four main processing steps: degassing and feed storage, acid gas stripping, ammonia stripping, ammonia purification and liquefaction. The WWT process is flexible and versatile. The two major reasons for building a WWT instead of a SWSfollowed by an ammonia-burning SRU are the economics of ammonia recovery and improved SRU operation. The economics of the WWT process strongly depend on the amount of ammonia present in the feed. The more ammonia in the sour water, the more incentive there is to recover it as a valuable by-product. Separation of ammonia from the hydrogen sulfide in the WWT has the following advantages for the SRU: elimination of ammonia-related problems in SRU 's such as lower operating factor, plugging in condensers and seals caused by ammonia salts, and catalyst deactivation increased overall sulfur recoveries and reduction in the size of SRU 's and tail gas units because ammonia and the air needed to burn it act as diluents. As an example, consideration is given to a refinery SRU that gets 70% of its acid gas feed from an amine plant with the rest coming from a sour water stripper. The gas from the sour water stripper contains 24 metric ton/d of ammonia. Removing the ammonia from the SRU reduces the SRU feed and combustion air flow ratesby about 45%, thus reducing the size and cost of the SRU. The tail gas flow rate from the SRU is reduced by about 55%. Removing the ammonia diluent from the SRU can also increase the sulfur recovery by as much as 2%. (Baker-IVI)

Preliminary Investigations into the Effects of Refinery Waste Water , and the Single Effect of its Major Pollutants on Commercially Interesting Crops

Al Nakshabandi, G A ; Hameed, Z ; Abdulhadi, A ; Saleem, B

Progress in Water Technology Vol 12, No 3, p 109-117, 1980. 4 Fig, 2 Tab, 4 Ref.

Abstract: The effects of refinery waste water and irrigation water containing NH3, H2S, oil, and phenol on commercial crops were investigated. Corn, barley, alfalfa, and radish were irrigated with solutions containing varying amounts of one of the pollutants, or with a dilution of API separator discharge from KNCP. Germination of the field crops was not affected by any of the pollutants however, radish germination was retarded by 100% and 75% solutions of refinery wastewater. Growth rates of radish, barley, and corn did not differ significantly from controls under all treatments. Alfalfa was affected.Thus, most crops tolerated the different types and concentrations of pollutants, except for heavily polluted waste water used in one test. (Small-FRC)

Designing for Arid Climates

Roberts, D G M ; Banks, P A

Water and Sewage Works Vol 127, No 1, p 59, January, 1980.

Abstract: Special problems encountered when designing sewage systems for arid locations include foul sewage and fouled processes and machinery. Sewage can reach a temperature of 35 deg C and quickly become septic. Also, low per capita water consumption makes the sewage strong and reduces flows. The resulting emission of hydrogen sulfide can cause severe corrosion of concrete and asbestos-cement pipes. Problems can be minimized by avoiding turbulence of the sewage or using forced ventilation. Also, epoxy coatings can be added to the insides of precast and in-situ concrete sewers. In areas of windblown sand, extremely efficient air filters are essential to avoid fine particle dust problems in the system. In activated sludge processes, windblown sand can enter moving machinery and cause increased bearing wear. Sand can also quickly fill small treatment lagoons. Extended aeration requires high power costs, but produces less sludge than conventional plants. (Small-FRC)

Compost Filters for H2S Removal from Anaerobic Digestion and Rendering Exhausts

Rands, M B ; Cooper, D E ; Woo, C P ; Fletcher, G C ; Rolfe, K A

Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation Vol 53, No 2, p 185-189, February, 1981. 2 Fig, 5 Tab, 5 Ref.

Abstract: The Moerewa Meat Waste Treatment Plant has had problems with the disposal of anaerobic digester gas for the past 20 years. The plant produces an abundance of compost from the periodic removal of sludge from anaerobic solids, balancing tanks, and anaerobic digesters. Pilot plant compost filters for removing waste gases were set up to examine the suitability of such a system to remove odors, especially H2S, and to explore the possibilities of using similar equipment as an alternative to expensive odor control methods. Favorable pilot plant results led to the construction of full-scale compost filter plants in 1978. By 1979, most of the problems had been overcome and the filter was handling the full gas flow from the aerator. An analysis of the screened compost showed it had a bulk density of 0.813 kilograms/liter, and composition values of moisture 45.5%, nitrogen 0.81%, carbon 36.7%,

and ash 33.9%, respectively. The average pH of the compost was 7.82, and the carbon/nitrogen ratio was 45.4. Watering was also instituted to prevent channeling and drying out of the compost and cracking of the retaining walls which gave rise to small leaks.

Fundamentals of Sewer Ventilation as Allied to the Tyneside Sewerage Scheme

Pescod, M B ; Price, A C

Water Pollution Control Vol 80, No 1, p 17-33, 1981. 8 Fig, 9 Tab, 6 Ref.

Abstract: The concentration of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the atmosphere of interceptor sewers arriving at the sewage treatment works at Howden, Great Britain, is important due to the proximity of a lead oxide plant which the Northumbrian Water Authority is bound by agreement to protect from exposure to even very low ambient H2S levels. A project was undertaken to achieve continual extraction of air from the sewers and replacement with fresh air so that the oxygen content of the sewer atmosphere would not be a limiting factor in reoxygenation of flowing sewage and would not contribute to the development of H2S in the

interceptor sewers as they approached the treatment plant. Factors which have been identified as contributing to the natural ventilation of sewers include sewage drag, wind-across-vent extraction, difference in temperature between sewer atmosphere and surface ambient air, sewage rise and fall, and change in barometric pressure. A general model for element of sewer length between one educt vent and the next, was developed and applied to the Tyneside sewerage scheme to estimate the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere of a range of sewer sizes. These studies allowed some of the fundamental factors in natural ventilation to be quantified and correlated with influencing variables. Ventilatingair flows were then calculated for the interceptor sewers under varying meteorological conditions. A criterion has been suggested to allow the calculation of maximum distance between educt vents on a sewer which will prevent oxygen deficiency in the sewer atmosphere from affecting bacterial respiration in the flowing sewage. The results have been applied in the design of natural ventilation for the interceptor sewers on Tyneside.

Treatment and Control of Hydrogen Sulfide Odor

Peat Biofilters in Long-Term Experiments for Removing Odorous Sulphur Compounds

Hartikainen, Tarja, University of Kuopio, Finland; Martikainen, Pertti J.; Olkkonen, Minna; Ruuskanen, Juhani

Water Air Soil Pollut v133, n1-4, p335(14), Jan 02

Abstract: At a waste pumping station in Finland, a packed filter bed of fibrous peat was evaluated for the removal of hydrogen sulfide, and in the laboratory, a peat biofilter with a volume of 2 l was studied in terms of the removal of H2S, methyl mercaptan, and dimethyl sulfide. Results from the in situ experiment showed that the native acid peat contained sulfur-oxidizing microbes, as oxidation of H2S occurred without any inoculation, but better removal was achieved using a neutralized peat. The highest S removal achieved with both neutralized and natural peat was 135 g/m3/d. When the natural peat biofilter was limed and inoculated in the laboratory study, a Me2S removal efficiency of 95% was achieved within two weeks. When methyl mercaptan was added to the waste gas containing Me2S, the removal efficiency of the latter was reduced significantly, but the removal efficiency of methyl mercaptan was 99%. When all three gases were present, removal of S averaged 80 g/m3/d. The lifetime of the biofilter decreased with increasing gas load.

Odor Control of an Anaerobic Lagoon with a Biological Cover: Floating Peat Beds

Picot, B., Universite Montpellier I, France; Paing, J.; Toffoletto, L.; Sambuco, J. P.; Costa, R. H. R.

Water Sci Technol v44, n9, p309(8), 2001

Abstract: A floating biological cover was evaluated for controlling odor emission from anaerobic lagoons. The biological cover consisted of a peat bed, and the effects of adding ferric chloride and plants to enhance the efficiency of biofiltration were considered. The study was conducted in five laboratory-scale pond reactors. The pond reactors were found to represent large-scale anaerobic ponds producing hydrogen sulfide. The presence of the floating peat bed significantly reduced H2S emissions, and emission-rate reductions were greatest in the system containing a combination of peat, Fe, and plants. Subsequent analysis of the systems revealed that H2S removed from the biogas was retained in the peat. The addition of ferric chloride increased the complexation of sulfide in the peat filter and improved H2S removal. In the system also containing aquatic ants, plant roots took up most of the S as sulfate, thereby enhancing further the efficiency of the peat bed.

A Pilot Study of a Biotrickling Filter for the Treatment of Odorous Sewage Air

Wu, L., Aromatrix Pte Ltd, Singapore; Loo, Y.-Y.; Koe, L. C. C.

Water Sci Technol v44, n9, p295(5), 2001

Abstract: At a local wastewater-treatment plant in Singapore, biotrickling filtration was used to treat hydrogen sulfide gas. The pilot-scale biotrickling filter was operated under normal operating sewage off-gas conditions, under high H2S loading conditions in the presence of sewage off-gas, and under shock H2S loading conditions in the presence of sewage off-gas. Acclimatization and immobilization of the bacteria are described. Under normal operating conditions, the H2S removal efficiency was 90% at inlet concentrations ranging 0.5-17.8 ppmv. As the H2S loading rate was increased from 20 to 100 ppmv, the removal efficiency decreased to 70%. Performance decreased further under shock loading, but recovery was observed when the H2S concentration was reduced to 50 ppmv, and recovery was complete when the influent concentration was reduced to 20 ppmv.

Simultaneous Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment and Odour Control

Hardy, P., Cranfield University, Bedford, Beds, UK; Burgess, J. E.; Morton,

S.; Stuetz, R. M.

Water Sci Technol v44, n9, p189(8), 2001

Abstract: Static-vessel tests and pilot-plant experiments were conducted toevaluate simultaneous activated-sludge wastewater treatment and odor control. A range of different activated sludges were used, along with different hydrogen sulfide concentrations. The origin of the activated sludge was found to have a strong effect on the ability to absorb H2S. Best

results were obtained using an industrial sludge, removing 100% of the inlet H2S, which may have been due to previous biomass acclimation. Sparging 5 ppm H2S into the activated sludge did not impact the wastewater-treatment process adversely.

Removal and Decomposition of Malodorants by Using Titanium Dioxide Photocatalyst Supported on Fiber Activated Carbon

Nozawa, M., Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan; Tanigawa, K.; Hosomi, M.; Chikusa, T.; Kawada, E.

Water Sci Technol v44, n9, p127(7),2001

Abstract: A compact deodorizing system has been developed that consists of a sheet material comprised of titanium dioxide supported on fiber activated carbon. Results are presented from experiments conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the system for removing ammonia, methyl mercaptan, and hydrogen sulfide from the gas phase. Experiments were conducted in the presence and absence of the sheet material and UV-irradiation. Concentrations of the malodorants and the reaction products were measured by gas detective tubes. Four different combinations of the TiO2/fiber activated C sheet and light sources were utilized. Results showed that NH3 and methyl mercaptan were oxidized to nitrate and sulfate, respectively, by photocatalysts in the presence of both systems, while methyl mercaptan was effectively decomposed with UV irradiation without the TiO2/fiber activated C sheet. The results suggested that the decomposition characteristics of the malodorants varied with the dominant wavelengths of the light sources.

Animal Production and Air Quality

Sweeten, John M., Texas A&M University, Amarillo

USDA Agricultural Outlook Forum 2001, Arlington, VA (8),Feb 22-23, 01

Abstract: Air quality problems commonly encountered in US livestock production operations are surveyed, highlighting ammonia and hydrogen sulfide as odorous gases of most concern. Data gaps are identified in terms of total suspended particulate emission rates and human responses and health effects associated with odors and particulate matter. Current federal and state policies concerning odor and air quality control at animal feedlots are summarized, and prospective approaches to odor control are examined. Research and technology transfer needs are cited.

Feasibility of Fluidized-Bed Bioreactor for Remediating Waste Gas Containing H2S or NH3

Chung, Ying-Chien, National Science Council, Taipei, Taiwan; Liu, Chia-Ho; Huang, Chihpin

J Environ Sci Health-Toxic Hazard Subst & Environ Eng vA36, n4, p509(12),2001

Abstract: A laboratory-scale bioreactor packed separately with immobilized Pseudomonas putida and Arthrobacter oxydans was evaluated for the treatment of gaseous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Both microorganisms were immobilized with calcium-alginate. At a phosphate buffer solution of less than 3.5 mM/pH, the gel structure was not affected, but at a higher buffer capacity, the gel structure was destroyed partially. The maximal removal efficiencies for H2S and NH3 were 7 and 30%, respectively, and removal efficiency decreased with increasing gas flow rates ranging 36-150 l/h.

With the addition of a carbon source, however, removal efficiencies were enhanced significantly. Ammonia removal increased with increasing inlet concentration, while the removal of H2S increased up to a specific inlet concentration and then leveled off.

Hydrogen Sulfide and Odor Control in Izmir Bay

Muezzinoglu, A., Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey; Sponza, D.; Koken, I.; Alparslan, N.; Akyarli, A.; Ozture, N.

Water Air Soil Pollut v123, n1-4, p245(13), Oct 00

Abstract: In the estuary of the combined mouths of the Melez and Arap Rivers in Turkey, brackish waters and sludge contain high concentrations of sulfate, sulfides, and sulfur-containing organic compounds. In this study, sediment and water samples were collected from Izmir Bay, and gaseous hydrogen sulfide was measured in the water and air phases. The results showed that, after 10 min of dosing with hydrated lime, waterborne H2S concentrations decreased from 50-320 ppm to 0.5-41 ppm. The variation in H2S concentrations over the following week was low, indicating that they originated from anaerobic activities that were blocked by lime addition.

Hydrogen Sulfide Control in Wastewater Collection Systems

Palmer, Tony, Instrumentation Testing Association, Henderson, NV; Lagasse, Paul; Ross, Maureen

Water Eng Manag v147, n8, p27(3),Aug 00

Abstract: The hydrogen sulfide gas formed in low-flow wastewater systems causes problems with odors and corrosion. In anaerobic conditions the sulfides combine with hydrogen to create the odorous hydrogen sulfide gas. While corrosion can be treated with ventilation, chemicals, and protective coatings, odor control is typically treated with chemical additions,

although this is difficult within confined spaces. The City of Winnipeg is seeking to address these problems with non-chemical solutions. A nitrate chemical treatment is used in the City of Santa Cruz, CA wastewater system. Three solutions are presented: monitoring an industrial discharger using a liquid-phase sulfide meter, chlorine injection optimization, and the use of an alternative chemical with lower environmental and public health risks.

The Ability of Selected Chemicals for Suppressing Odour Development in Rising Mains

Hobson, J.; Yang, G., Water Research Centre, Blagrove, Swindon, UK

Water Sci Technol v41, n6, p165(9), 2000

abstract: In rising mains, the formation of hydrogen sulfide leads to odor and corrosion problems when it is oxidized biologically to sulfuric acid. A number of chemical means have been characterized in terms of the prevention of H2S formation, but their effects on odor have not been widely considered. Using a pilot-scale rising main carrying fresh crude sewage, the use of Nutriox and ferric chloride to suppress H2S and odor generation was investigated. The resulting data revealed that the addition of Nutriox to sewage prior to its entering the rising main totally suppressed H2S formation and almost totally suppressed odor generation. Similar results were achieved using ferric chloride, but the reduction of dissolved sulfide levels to below 0.1 mg/l, as observed when Nutriox was used, did not always totally suppress odor generation. Post-dosing with iron totally eliminated the sulfide that had been produced, but the odor potential remained high.

A Bioscrubber for Hydrogen Sulphide Removal

Koe, L. C. C.; Yang, F., National University of Singapore

Water Sci Technol v41, n6, p141(5),2000

Abstract: A laboratory-scale fixed-film bioscrubber was set up in Singapore and evaluated in terms of its use in removing hydrogen sulfide during wastewater treatment. The scrubber was inoculated with Thiobacillus sp.isolated from the activated sludge of an aeration tank at a municipal wastewater-treatment plant. A schematic of the bioscrubber is provided. During the experiment, the sulfate level was kept at 2000-5000 mg/l, and sulfate, mixed liquor volatile suspended solids, and ammonia-nitrogenconcentrations were determined by standard methods. Odor was measured using a dynamic olfactometer. The influent H2S concentration was approximately 5 ppm. Results showed that, when the gas retention times were reduced from 5 s to 4 and 3 s, removal efficiency decreased to 78 and 68%, respectively. The maximum practical elimination capacity of the system was determined to be approximately 90 g H2S/m2/h, and the maximum elimination rate was 120 g H2S/m3/h. Optimal pH was higher than 1.

Sulphurous Compounds in Tropical Wastewater Treatment Systems: Problems and Solutions

Conil, Philippe, Biotec para America Latina

Water 21 p58(3),Nov-Dec 99

Abstract: Warmer climates have proven suitable for the implementation of low-cost anaerobic wastewater treatment technologies. These types of treatment facilities may experience significant problems associated with the presence of hydrogen sulfide and other problematic compounds. Several case studies are included to highlight the negative impacts of the presence of these types of compounds in wastewater treatment systems. Effective technologies for the removal of hydrogen sulfide from emission streams will also boost the commercial viability of efforts aimed at promoting biogas recovery. Solutions to these types of problems are detailed via reviews of several case histories, including palm oil production efforts, a yeast factory, a rendering plant and a municipal network.

Unmodified Versus Caustics-Impregnated Carbons for Control of Hydrogen Sulfide Emissions from Sewage Treatment Plants

Bandosz, Teresa J., City University of New York; Bagreev, Andrey; Adib, Foad; Turk, Amos

Environ Sci Technol v34, n6, p1069(6), Mar 15, 00

Abstract: The performances of caustic and unmodified carbons as odor adsorbents were compared over an almost 2-yr period at the North River Water Pollution Control Plant, NY. A coconut-based unmodified C, a coal-based unmodified C, and a caustic-impregnated material were used. Results showed that the initial capacity of the caustic-impregnated carbons exceeded that of the unmodified materials in the laboratory, but not in the field. Over time, the unmodified carbons outperformed the caustic-impregnated materials. The advantage of the unmodified carbons over the caustic-impregnated ones was attributed to the catalytic action in promoting dissociative adsorption of hydrogen sulfide and its subsequent oxidation.

Surface Oxidation for Reducing Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide Emissions from Dairy Manure Storage

Xue, S. K.; Chen, Shulin, Washington State University, Pullman

Trans Am Soc Agric Eng v42, n5, p1401(8), Sep-Oct 99

Abstract: The effectiveness of using hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate in a surface oxidation process for reducing ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from dairy manure was studied. Spraying of 0.5% hydrogen peroxide on the manure surface steadily reduced 70% of ammonia emissions, as well as significantly reducing ammonia concentration on the liquid manure surface. Spraying 0.5% potassium permanganate on the manure surface reduced ammonia emissions by 70% initially also, but the effectiveness gradually declined. Hydrogen sulfide emissions also were reduced with hydrogen peroxide spraying. Hydrogen peroxide gave a superior performance for reducing ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from manure.

Biofiltration of Asphalt Emissions: Full-Scale Operation Treating Off-Gases from Polymer-Modified Asphalt Production

Cook, Lawrence L., Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls; Gostomski, Peter A.; Apel, William A.

Environ Progr v18, n3, p178(10), Fall 993qr

Abstract: Experts developed a biofiltration system for the treatment of three odiferous emission streams from an asphalt plant that produces polymer-modified asphalt. The most common problematic pollutant in the emission streams was identified as hydrogen sulfide. Tests of the proposed biofiltration system indicated that the system was effective in controlling odors from the production process. Removal efficiencies for hydrogen sulfide under different operating conditions are described. Factors that led to acidification of the biofilter bed are identified. Resulting changes in the microbial community in response to increasing bed acidity are detailed. Findings from a survey of public perceptions of changes in air quality following implementation of the biofilter are investigated.

Wheat Straw Cover for Reducing Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide Emissions from Dairy Manure Storage

Xue, S. K., Washington State University, Pullman; Chen, S.; Hermanson, R. E.

Trans Am Soc Agric Eng v42, n4, p1095(7),Jul-Aug 99

Abstract: The feasibility of using wheat straw covers to reduce ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from lagoon-stored liquid manure was studied in the laboratory and in a pilot system. Concentrations of ammonia, dissolved sulfide, COD, and hydrogen sulfide were measured for two straw cover thicknesses. Overall mass transfer coefficients for ammonia and hydrogen sulfide also were calculated. Both 5 cm and 10 cm covers effectively reduced ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions from stored manure. Crust formation on the manure surface under the straw reduced ammonia emissions by 95%. Biological reactions also may contribute to emission reductions.

Sulfide Suppression

Moody, Tod C.; Riek, George C., Camp Dresser & McKee, Walnut Creek, CA

Water Environ Technol v11, n2, p45(6), Feb 99

Abstract: Two different approaches to sulfide suppression for odor control in sanitation district force mains are presented. The two systems have dissimilar hydraulic conditions in terms of projected peak flows. Full-scale pilot studies were undertaken in two districts (both in California) to enhance odor control effectiveness and efficiency and evaluate performance of calcium nitrate, oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide in force mains. Costs of odor control, corrosion protection, pumping, and capital costs were considered. At one force main, nitrate was chosen despite its slightly higher cost because it is nonhazardous and provides good control throughout the collection system. At the other force main, oxygen injection was chosen because of the system configuration (short detention times under high pressur).

Hydrogen Sulphide and Volatile Fatty Acid Removal from Foul Air in a Fibrous Bed Bioreactor

Li, X. Z., Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon; Wu, J. S.; Sun, D. L.

Water Sci Technol v38, n3, p323(7),1998

Abstract: The development in Hong Kong of a fibrous-bed bioreactor is presented, which can be used to remove hydrogen sulfide and volatile fatty acids from foul gas. The synthetic foul gas used was a combination of H2S, butyric acid, and air. Two plastic fibrous sheets used in a kitchen hood as oil filters were employed as the fibrous material in the bioreactor, which

was seeded with activated sludge. Over time, inlet and outlet gases were sampled. Results showed that odor removal was achieved primarily by the mass transfer of H2S and butyric acid from the foul-gas phase into the water phase. This mass-transfer rate was a key factor in determining the odor-removal efficiency of the reactor. Hydrogen sulfide removal was influenced significantly by pH in the range 3-5.5, but less so in the range 5.5-7.5. The maximum H2S removal was achieved at a pH of 4. The bioreactor

could tolerate H2S fluctuations and was influenced only slightly by the sulfate concentration.

St. Louis POTW Addresses Odor Control

Air Pollut Consultant v8, n2, p1.18(3), Mar-Apr 98

Abstract: Community complaints prompted operators at a St. Louis, MO,publicly owned wastewater treatment plant to implement a multistep odor control program. The first phase entailed identification of problem areas and installation of a large biofilter to control emissions of hydrogen sulfide and other organics. Hydrogen sulfide removal efficiencies have been sufficient to control odors and virtually eliminate community complaints. The next phase will involve installation of aluminum covers over the primary clarification tank weirs and effluent channel areas. Air from these work areas will be conveyed to a 5000 cfm biofilter for additional odor control.

Avoiding the Problems of Septic Sewage

Boon, Arthur G., Hyder Consulting, London, UK; Vincent, Alison J.; Boon, Kevin G.

Water Sci Technol v37, n1, p223(9), 1998

Abstract: Septic sewage occurs when DO and nitrates in wastewater have been consumed, and sulfide is produced under subsequent anaerobic conditions. Equations that relate to the prevention and control of septicity were linked together to form a mathematical model, which can be used to control odors and to minimize corrosion in sewer pipes, and a method was developed for removing hydrogen sulfide from ventilated air using a simple filter. The filter was used to scrub air ventilated from above sludge-storage tanks, which was known to contain high concentrations of H2S. Bog-iron ore, which was normally utilized in the filter, was replaced with rusty mild steel. Good results were achieved.

Impact of Hydrogen Sulfide on Health

The Science of Bad Breathe

Rosenberg Mel

Maurice and Gabriela Goldschleger School of Dental Medicine, Tel Aviv University.

Scientific American (United States) Apr 2002 , 286 (4) p72-9

Investigation of illness associated with exposure to hydrogen sulfide among Pennsylvania school students.

Logue J N; Ramaswamy K; Hersh J H

Journal of environmental health (United States) Jan-Feb 2001 , 63 (6) p9-13,

During 1998, the Pennsylvania Department of Health received complaints about hydrogen sulfide odors believed to be associated with mushroom-composting operations in southeastern Pennsylvania. Many residents were concerned about possible illness in students attending an elementary school near the composting operations. In response, the department conducted health surveys during the spring and autumn at the exposed school and at a nearby control school. The surveys assessed whether exposures to

hydrogen sulfide were associated with excess adverse health effects by comparing health effects among students from the exposed school with those among students from the control school. School nurses were trained to complete health questionnaires for the students. The state environmental agency measured daily ambient hydrogen sulfide concentrations at both schools. No consistent association was found between exposure to low levels of hydrogen sulfide and any adverse health effects. It was concluded that the students attending the elementary school near the mushroom-composting operations were not exposed to any significant public health hazard.

Health effects from chronic low-level exposure to hydrogen sulfide .

Legator M S; Singleton C R; Morris D L; Philips D L

Archives of environmental health (United States) Mar-Apr 2001 , 56 (2) p123-31,

The acute toxic effects of hydrogen sulfide have been known for decades.However, studies investigating the adverse health effects from chronic, low-level exposure to this chemical are limited. In this study, the authors compared symptoms of adverse health effects, reported by residents of two communities exposed mainly to chronic, low-levels of industrial sources of

hydrogen sulfide, to health effects reported by residents in three reference communities in which there were no known industrial sources of hydrogen sulfide. Trained interviewers used a specially created menu-driven computer questionnaire to conduct a multi-symptom health survey. The data-collection process and questions were essentially the same in the reference and exposed communities. The two exposed communities responded very similarly to questions about the major categories. When the authors compared responses of the exposed communities with those of the reference communities, 9 of the 12 symptom categories had iterated odds ratios greater than 3.0. The symptoms related to the central nervous system had the highest iterated odds ratio (i.e., 12.7; 95% confidence interval = 7.59, 22.09), followed by the respiratory category (odds ratio = 11.92; 95% confidence interval = 6.03, 25.72), and the blood category (odds ratio =8.07; 95% confidence interval = 3.64, 21.18). Within the broader health categories, individual symptoms were also elevated significantly. This study, like all community-based studies, had several inherent limitations. Limitations, and the procedures the authors used to minimize their effects on the study outcomes, are discussed. The results of this studyemphasize the need for further studies on the adverse health effects related tolong-term, chronic exposure to hydrogen sulfide.

Odour measurements for sewage treatment works.

Gostelow P; Parsons S A; Stuetz R M

Water research (England) Mar 2001 , 35 (3) p579-97,

Public concern over odours from sewage treatment works is increasing. More people are being exposed to odours, due to development around existing works or construction of new works. Increased awareness of both the environment and individual rights has meant people are now more likely to complain. Odour abatement and control is a major issue for sewage works operators. To control odours, they must first be measured. This is no easy task as response to odours is subjective. Our understanding of the sense of smell is incomplete, and there is no single measure that will directly relate to the likelihood of complaint. Odour measurement has often been regarded as an art as opposed to a science. Odour measurement techniques fall into two classes. Sensory measurements employ the human nose and measure the effects of the odour as perceived by an observer. Analytical measurements characterise odours in terms of their chemical composition and attempt to quantify the odorants present. Both methods are less than ideal--sensory measurements can be overly subjective and the interpretation of results requires care. Analytical measurements are complicated by the large number of odorants present, often at concentrations close to

detection limits. Our incomplete understanding of odour perception makes linking analytical and sensory measurements difficult. This paper reviews the methods applied to sewage treatment works odour measurement. Sensory and analytical measurements are reviewed, along with a recent development,the electronic nose.

Occupationally related hydrogen sulfide deaths in the United States from 1984 to 1994.

Fuller D C; Suruda A J

Journal of occupational and environmental medicine / American College of

Occupational and Environmental Medicine (UNITED STATES) Sep 2000 , 42, (9) p939-42

Alice Hamilton described fatal work injuries from acute hydrogen sulfide poisonings in 1925 in her book Industrial Poisons in the United States. There is no unique code for H2S poisoning in the International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision; therefore, these deaths cannot be identified easily from vital records. We reviewed US Occupational Safety

and Health Administration (OSHA) investigation records for the period 1984 to 1994 for mention of hazardous substance 1480 (hydrogen sulfide). There were 80 fatalities from hydrogen sulfide in 57 incidents, with 19 fatalities and 36 injuries among coworkers attempting to rescue fallen workers. Only 17% of the deaths were at workplaces covered by collective bargaining agreements. OSHA issued citations for violation of respiratory protection and confined space standards in 60% of the fatalities. The use of hydrogen sulfide detection equipment, air-supplied respirators, and confined space safety training would have prevented most of the fatalities.

General evaluation of risk associated with the use of pesticides and other chemical substances on animal breeding and plant production farms.

Pomorska K

International journal of occupational safety and ergonomics : 1999 , 5 (3) p449-57,

A general characteristic of chemical risk on plant production farms in Poland is presented. The paper describes risk associated with the natural occurrence of chemical substances (such as ammonium and hydrogen sulfide) in the process of animal breeding and risk connected with the use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are briefly

described taking into consideration toxicity classes and the toxic effect of individual compounds. Exposure to pesticides is presented for individual methods and related activities. Finally, the author discusses pesticide risk on fruit-growing farms and in greenhouses.

Respiratory protection on offshore drilling rigs.

Mattorano D A; Merinar T

Applied occupational and environmental hygiene (ENGLAND) Mar 1999,14 (3) p141-8

Influence of odour immissions from cellulose-paper industry on some health indicators.

Georgieff D; Turnovska T

Folia medica (BULGARIA) 1999 , 41 (1) p38-42, ISSN 0204-8043

The population of the town of Stamboliisky, Bulgaria, is constantly exposed to air pollution which includes immissions of unpleasant odours like methylmercaptane, dimethylsulphide, hydrogen sulfide, etc. Most of these can cause serious olfactory damage even at concentrations well below the toxic levels. The aim of the present study was to analyse the effect of odour immissions on the health status of the people in the town of

Stamboliisky.

Industrial hygiene aspects of a sampling survey at a bleached-kraft pulp mill in British Columbia.

Astrakianakis G; Svirchev L; Tang C; Janssen R; Anderson J; Band P; Le N; Fang R; Bert J

American Industrial Hygiene Association journal (UNITED STATES) Oct 1998 , 59 (10) p694-705,

To validate exposure estimates used to investigate correlations between exposure and cancer risk, 1678 personal measurements were collected for 46 job titles during 73 day shifts at a bleached-kraft pulp mill. Measurements included shift-long average and short-term exposures to carbon monoxide, chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and hydrogen sulfide; and shift-long average exposures to calcium oxide and wood dust (WD). Overall results indicate low levels of exposure with a few noteworthy exceptions. Although ClO2 was the exclusive bleaching agent, 77 area samples indicated that chlorine (Cl2), not ClO2 was present in all areas apart from the chemical preparation area (chem-prep) and during a pulp spill. The highest shift-long exposures to Cl2 were measured in the chip yard and are attributed to uncontrolled stack emissions. Finally, WD samples collected from several laborers

significantly exceeded regulatory limits, with the highest exposures measured in the steam and recovery area. For short-term exposures to ClO2 in chem-prep, 12 of 17 data-logging electro-chemical sensor sample results showed at least one peak that exceeded the short-term exposure limit of 0.3 ppm. The use of data-logging equipment quantified short-term exposures that previously had been characterized only anecdotally. The peaks were

correlated with tasks and upset conditions and, given their transient nature, these exceedances could not have been detected using shift-long average-based sampling devices. Since the respiratory effects of significant short-term exposures to irritant gases such as Cl2 and ClO2 are well-documented, data-logging instruments are necessary to characterizeexposures in the pulp and paper industry.

Lung health in relation to hydrogen sulfide exposure in oil and gas workers in Alberta, Canada.

Hessel P A; Herbert F A; Melenka L S; Yoshida K; Nakaza M

American journal of industrial medicine (UNITED STATES) May 1997 , 31 (5) p554-7.

A study was undertaken to assess pulmonary health effects of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exposure in a group of workers (n = 175) extracting and processing oil and natural gas in west-central Alberta. Exposure to H2S was assessed by questioning the workers about "exposures strong enough to cause symptoms," and exposures that resulted in loss of consciousness (a "knockdown"). Exposures strong enough to cause symptoms were reported by 34% of the workers. Fourteen workers (8%) reported having had a knockdown.

Exposures severe enough to cause symptoms were not associated with lower spirometric values or excess symptoms. Knockdowns were not associated with lower spirometric values but were associated with statistically significant excesses of (1) shortness of breath while hurrying on the level or walking up a slight hill (OR = 3.55; 95%CI = 1.02-12.4); (2) wheeze with chest tightness (OR = 5.15; 95%CI = 1.29-20.6); and (3) attacks of wheeze (OR = 5.08; 95%CI = 1.28-20.2). The pattern of excess respiratory symptoms is consistent with bronchial hyperresponsiveness, which has been documented in studies of high-level exposure to other irritant gases. Additional study is warranted and should include assessment of bronchial reactivity.

Effects of 5 ppm hydrogen sulfide inhalation on biochemical properties of skeletal muscle in exercising men and women.

Bhambhani Y; Burnham R; Snydmiller G; MacLean I; Martin T

American Industrial Hygiene Association journal (UNITED STATES) May 1996 , 57 (5) p464-8.

This study compared the acute effects of 5 ppm hydrogen sulfide (H2S) inhalation (50 % of its occupational exposure limit) on the biochemical properties of skeletal muscle in exercising men and women. Twenty-five healthy volunteers, 13 men and 12 women, completed two 30-minute submaximal tests at 50% of their predetermined maximal aerobic power (VO2max) while breathing 0 ppm (control) or 5 ppm H2S from a specially designed flow system in a single-blind manner. Immediately after exercise, biopsies were

obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle under local anaesthesia. They were subsequently analyzed for concentrations of the following markers of anaerobic and aerobic metabolism: lactate (La), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), citrate synthase (CS), and cytochrome oxidase (CytOx). Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that in men, the CS concentration decreased significantly (p = 0.006) as a result of H2S exposure. There was

also a tendency for their La and LDH concentrations to increase and CytOx concentration to decrease in the presence of H2S, but these changes were not significant (p > 0.05). In women no significant changes were observed in any of these biochemical properties. These results suggest that (1) exposure to H2S at 50% of its OEL might inhibit aerobic metabolism during exercise in healthy men, thereby increasing their dependency on anaerobic metabolism; and (2) there could be a significant gender difference in the acute response to sub-OEL exposures of H2S.

Relationship between volatile sulfur compounds, BANA-hydrolyzing bacteria and gingival health in patients with and without complaints of oral

malodor.

De Boever E H; De Uzeda M; Loesche W J

Journal of clinical dentistry (UNITED STATES) 1994 , 4 (4) p114-9,

The aim of this study was to obtain measurements of oral malodor, as measured by volatile sulfur compounds (VSC), in periodontally healthy individuals without any complaints of bad breath, and to compare the results with data obtained from patients with complaints of oral malodor. The quality of the mouth air was assessed organoleptically and a portable sulfide monitor was used to measure the concentration of VSC in mouth air. The gingival health of 35 individuals (21 M, 14 F; ages 18-57 years) without any malodor complaints was evaluated according to the Papillary Bleeding Score (PBS). Pocket depths and Bleeding upon Probing (BOP) were also recorded in 20 patients (11 females and 9 males ranging in age from 14 to 71 years) who complained of oral malodor. Scrapings of the dorsal surface of the tongue and each of 6 plaque samples per patient were evaluated for the presence of BANA-positive species, such as T. denticola, P. gingivalis, and B. forsythus. The organoleptic ratings and VSC values were significantly higher in the complaint group (p < 0.05). Subjects in the complaint group had a significantly higher percentage of bleeding sites (p < 0.005) and had significantly more plaques that tested positive for the presence of BANA-hydrolyzing species (p < 0.05). Tongue scrapings of

subjects with a high organoleptic score consistently yielded a positive BANA reaction suggesting that the dorsal surface of the tongue is an important niche for BANA-positive, VSC-producing bacteria. This study suggests that the primary sources of VSC production are BANA-hydrolyzing bacteria in the plaque and on the dorsal surface of the tongue.

Association of severe asthma attacks with weather, pollen, and air pollutants.

Rossi O V; Kinnula V L; Tienari J; Huhti E

Thorax (ENGLAND) Mar 1993 , 48 (3) p244-8.

BACKGROUND: The association between exacerbations of asthma and weather or air pollution is not well understood. The relationships between visits to the emergency room for asthma attacks and the meteorological, aerobiological, and chemical characteristics of the outdoor air have been evaluated. METHODS: The number of daily attendances for asthma attacks at the emergency room of Oulu University Central Hospital was recorded over one year together with daily meteorological readings (temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, rainfall), levels of air pollutants (nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), total suspended particles (TSP)), and pollen counts (birch, alder, pine, willow, total pollen). The relationship between the number of attendances and the measured variables was then analysed by multiple regression and stepwise discriminant analysis. RESULTS: The total number of attendances during the year was 232, with lower figures in summer and higher in winter. No association was found between visits for asthma attacks and airborne pollen levels or meteorological factors except for temperature, which had a low inverse correlation with attendance. The most significant correlations were found between asthma visits and the levels of NO2; those for SO2, TSP,

and H2S were also significant. Intercorrelations between SO2 and temperature or NO2 and between temperature and TSP or NO2 were also found, but only NO2 correlated significantly with attendances after standardisation for temperature. CONCLUSIONS: Increased levels of pollutants, especially NO2, were associated with attacks of asthma, but the explanation for this is unclear. Air pollen levels were not associated with asthma attacks and only temperature among the meteorological factors had a small association with asthma.

Community health and odor pollution regulation.

Shusterman D

American journal of public health (UNITED STATES) Nov 1992 , 82 (11) p1566-7. Comment on Am J Public Health. 1992 Apr;82(4) 603-5; Comment on PMID, 1546787

An evaluation of the hydrogen sulphide water screening test and coliform counts for water quality assessment in rural Malaysia.

Desmarchelier P; Lew A; Caique W; Knight S; Toodayan W; Isa A R; Barnes A

Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (ENGLAND) Jul-Aug 1992 , 86 (4) p448-50..

The H2S water screening test and the membrane filtration faecal coliform ount were compared with Escherichia coli counts for water samples ollected from household water sources and domestic drinking water in rural Malaysia Water samples were taken from 151 wells, 44 taps supplying water from the treated municipal supply and 192 domestic stored water supplies. E. coli were detected in 20% of the samples (42% of wells, 7% of tap water and 6% of drinking water). Excellent correlation (Spearman's rank correlation rs = 0.93) was found between the faecal coliform and E. coli counts for all sample types. The H2S method was poorly correlated whether read at 18 or 30 h. False positive rates were highest for well water, and false negative rates were highest for both well and drinking water samples, with low E. coli counts. The faecal coliform test was an excellent predictor of the presence of E. coli in these water samples, while the H2S test was very inadequate.

The South Karelia Air Pollution Study: acute health effects of malodorous sulfur air pollutants released by a pulp mill.

Haahtela T; Marttila O; Vilkka V; Jappinen P; Jaakkola J J

American journal of public health (UNITED STATES) Apr 1992 , 82 (4) p603-5. Comment in Am J Public Health. 1992 Nov;82(11) 1566-7.

We evaluated the acute health effects of a strong emission of malodorous sulfur compounds released from a pulp mill in South Karelia, Finland. The 24-hour ambient air concentrations of hydrogen sulfide for the two emission days were 35 and 43 micrograms/m3 (maximum 4-hour 135 micrograms/m3). A questionnaire was distributed after the high exposure and later after a low exposure period to 29 households with 75 subjects living in the nearby community. During the high exposure, 63% of the respondents reported experience of at least one symptom compared to 26% during the reference period. Every third participant reported difficulties in breathing. In the 45 subjects responding to both questionnaires more eye, respiratory and neuropsychological symptoms occurred during the exposure compared to the reference period. The strong malodorous emission from a pulp mill caused an alarming amount of adverse effects in the exposed population.

KISR Research Project

CALL NUMBER: ‎‎EES 56 KISR 1126-A

AUTHOR: ‎‎Youash, Y. Y.

TITLE: ‎‎Subsurface water rise in residential areas of Kuwait / Y. ‎‎Youash, Earth Sciences Department, Environmental and Earth‎ ‎Sciences Division. ‎ PUBLICATION: ‎‎Kuwait: KISR, 1983. ‎

CALL NUMBER: ‎‎EES 96 KISR 2263-B

AUTHOR: ‎‎Al-Harmi, L.

TITLE: ‎‎Environmental assessment of industrial and Warfare chemical ‎‎hazards / L. Al-Harmi, Environmental Sciences Department, ‎‎Environmental and Earth Sciences Division.

PUBLICATION: ‎‎Kuwait: KISR, 1987‎

CALL NUMBER: ‎‎EES 99 KISR 2484

AUTHOR: ‎‎Ghobrial, F.

TITLE: ‎‎Assessment of Potential property damage by the release of ‎‎H2S gas from sewage system / F. Ghobrial...[et al.]., ‎‎Environmental and Earth Sciences Division, Petroleum, ‎ ‎‎Petrochemicals and Materials Division.

‎ PUBLICATION: ‎‎Kuwait: KISR, 1987. ‎

‎

CALL NUMBER: ‎‎EES 95 KISR 2243-B

AUTHOR: ‎‎Ghobrial, F.

TITLE: ‎‎Characteristics of raw sewage and treated effluent in the ‎‎main treatment plants in Kuwait / F. Ghabrial, Environment ‎‎sciences Department, Environmental and Earth Sciences ‎‎Division.

PUBLICATION: ‎‎Kuwait: KISR, 1987. ‎

‎

‎‎ ‎

HYDROGEN SULFIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Hydrogen Sulfide Gas

http://www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/factsheets/hydrogensulfide.htm

This pamphlet provides answers to basic questions about hydrogen sulfide gas. It will explain what hydrogen sulfide gas is, where it is found, how it can affect your health, and what you can do to prevent or reduce exposure to it.

Hydrogen sulfide gas is also known as “sewer gas” because it is often produced by the decay of waste material. Hydrogen sulfide gas has a strong odor at low levels. At higher levels, your nose can become overwhelmed by the gas and you cannot smell it. At these higher levels, hydrogen sulfide gas can make you sick and even kill you.

WHAT IS HYDROGEN SULFIDE GAS?

Hydrogen sulfide gas has a strong odor that smells like rotten eggs. It is colorless and occurs naturally in the environment. Hydrogen sulfide gas can be formed and released whenever waste containing sulfur is broken down by bacteria.

Sewers, septic tanks, livestock waste pits, man holes, well pits, and trucks that transport chemical wastes may release hydrogen sulfide gas. Hydrogen sulfide gas also can be found in groundwater, especially in wells near oil fields or in wells that penetrate shale or sandstone.

Hydrogen sulfide gas also is found in petroleum and natural gas. Natural gas can contain up to 28 percent hydrogen sulfide gas so it may be an air pollutant near natural gas production areas and petroleum refineries. The gas also can be produced by industries that work with sulfur compounds.

HOW CAN I BE EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE GAS?

The main way to be exposed to hydrogen sulfide gas is by breathing it. You also can have skin or eye contact with hydrogen sulfide gas.

Exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas can occur in the home and in the workplace. In the home, exposure may occur because of faulty plumbing. Sewer drains that have dry traps can allow hydrogen sulfide gas to enter the home. Another common exposure is from well water that contains hydrogen sulfide gas. This water has the characteristic "rotten egg" smell. The unpleasant odor of well water does not usually signify a health hazard because the smell of hydrogen sulfide gas can be detected at low levels. Workers involved in occupations such as livestock farming, sewage treatment, and oil refining may be exposed to hydrogen sulfide gas at work.

HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE GAS AFFECT MY HEALTH?

Hydrogen sulfide gas can be smelled at a level of about 10 parts per billion (ppb). (A part per billion is about the same as a thimble full of hydrogen sulfide gas in a theater full of air.) Some people can smell it at even lower levels. Exposure to higher levels

of hydrogen sulfide gas can irritate the eyes, the nose, and the lungs. Although hydrogen sulfide gas has a strong odor, extended exposure deadens the sense of smell. At a level of 50 to 100 parts per million (ppm) of hydrogen sulfide gas in air, the sense of smell begins to break down. (A part per million is about the same as two soda cans full of hydrogen sulfide gas in a house full of air.) At this level, you should not rely on your sense of smell to decide if hydrogen sulfide gas is present. An instrument that measures hydrogen sulfide gas in air should be used. As hydrogen sulfide gas levels increase, the gas can cause eye irritation, dizziness, coughing, and headache. At levels greater than 250 ppm, hydrogen sulfide gas begins to affect your ability to breathe. Exposure to more than 600 ppm can be rapidly fatal. Deaths have occurred when people have entered poorly ventilated spaces such as sewer systems, deep well pits, and underground liquid manure tanks. Hydrogen sulfide gas is heavier than air, so its concentration is usually highest near the bottom of these spaces.

At levels less than 250 ppm, recovery occurs quickly if exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas is ended promptly. Long-term nervous system problems have been found in survivors of short- term, high-level exposures. Some heart defects also have been reported in these cases.

In drinking water, a hydrogen sulfide gas concentration of 70 ppm may cause digestive system irritation. Drinking water containing 700 ppm of hydrogen sulfide is highly poisonous. Direct skin contact with water containing these levels of hydrogen sulfide gas can cause redness and pain. The eye can become irritated at low levels of hydrogen sulfide gas in water. Inflammation and permanent scarring of the eye can take place at very high levels.

It is not certain whether long-term exposure to low levels of hydrogen sulfide gas can make people sick. Studies with animals show that breathing low levels of hydrogen sulfide gas for a long time can cause irritation and inflammation of the nose, throat, and lungs. Other animal studies show that long-term exposure to low levels of hydrogen sulfide in drinking water can cause digestive system problems.

HOW CAN I REDUCE MY EXPOSURE TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE GAS?

Exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas can be reduced or prevented by ensuring that plumbing fixtures and pipes are installed and maintained properly. In homes where hydrogen sulfide gas is present you can reduce the level of the gas by locating and eliminating the source. Plumbers licensed by the Illinois Department of Public Health may be able to help with correcting problems associated with hydrogen sulfide gas. Increased ventilation in problem areas can temporarily reduce exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas.

Workers who may be exposed to hydrogen sulfide gas should follow the guidelines established by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA has established confined space entry standards to prevent death from exposure to chemicals like hydrogen sulfide gas.

WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?

Illinois Department of Public Health
Division of Environmental Health

SELECTED INTERNET SITES ON HYDROGEN SULFIDE

· Hydrogen Sulfide in Drinking Water - Causes and Treatment ... (PDF)
http://soil-testing.tamu.edu/publications/804056-l5312.pdf

· Hydrogen Sulfide Kills
http://www.swopnet.com/engr/Gayman/Gayman_H2S.html

· Sulfates, Hydrogen Sulfide, Rotten Egg Odor, Sulfur , Sulfate ...
http://wilkes.edu/~eqc/sulfate1.htm

· Hydrogen Peroxide Treatment of Hydrogen Sulfide and VOC Affected ...
http://www.tri-s.com/articles/abstract03.htm

· hydrogen sulfide (H2S): What you need to know
http://www.h2ssafety.com/hydrogen_sulfide.htm

· Hydrogen Sulfide Removal - The Details
http://www.biocube.com/hydrogen_sulfide_removal.htm

عناوين المراجع المترجمة

1- نموذج لدراسة الطعم و الرائحة الناتجتين من تقنية معالجة المياه الجوفية في منشأة من المنشآت .

2- عدم تأثير المكونات البكتيرية على قيم غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في المياه الجوفية .

3- المصادر الطبيعية و الصناعية التي تتحكم في توزيع الكبريتات (السلفات) و الكربون العضوي في الطفل الجليدي .

4- التحلل البيولوجي لمركب السالفولين في عينات التربة و المياه الجوفية من موقع لمصنع غاز .

5- المياه الجوفية .

6- نوعية المياه الجوفية حول الأجزاء السفلية من نهر ميا .

7- توزيع و مصادر عنصر الباريوم في المياه الجوفية في إحدى المحميات الهندية الواقعة جنوب غرب مدينة نيويورك .

8- جيوكيميائية المياه الجوفية : عنصر الزرنيخ في مدافن المخلفات .

9- نوعية المياه الجوفية في كاب كود بولاية ماسيتيوستش .

10-عوائق تطوير جهود الدراسات الحرارية الأرضية .

11- أثر الكربون العضوي على تركيز الحديد و غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في المياه الجوفية .

12- مصادر المياه الجوفية في المكامن الصخرية لحوض دنفر بولاية كولورادو .

13- مصادر المياه الجوفية في الجزء الشمالي الشرقي بولاية إلينوي – المشاكل المرتبطة بنوعية المياه الجوفية المستخرجة من الآبار .

14- تكون الغازات في المياه الجوفية .

15- تحديد عنصر الكبريت بشكل مفصل باستخدام تقنية المطياف الضوئي .

16- التخطيط للاستفادة من المياه الجوفية الموجودة في مكامن الصخور الجيرية في شمال غرب ولاية أوهايو .

17- التخلص من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين باستخدام مركبات الحديد الناتجة من مياه الصرف الحاوية للمعادن : دراسة لآلية التفاعل .

18- توفير الحماية البيولوجية و التخلص من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في الحمأة في محطة ليلهامر لمعالجة مياه الصرف الصحي .

19- قدرة بعض المواد الكيميائية في الحد من تكون الروائح في خطوط الصرف .

20- الدلك البيولوجي : الحل الفعال و الاقتصادي للتحكم في الروائح المنبعثة من محطات معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي .

21- الاستفادة من عملية الدلك البيولوجي للتخلص من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين .

22- نمذجة انتشار غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين : دراسات مطبقة في المناطق السكنية و الريفية .

23- تقييم أثر مكونات الروائح على اللحاءات و نواتج الهواء المنبعثة من الصناعات الورقية .

24- معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي المشبعة بالكبريتات باستخدام التقنيات البيولوجية .

25- أثر المياه الناتجة من عمليات التقطير على المواد العضوية الذائبة و غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين و ملوحة مياه القنوات .

26- تقييم المواد الكيميائية المستخدمة في التحكم في انبعاث الروائح الضارة المشبعة بغاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في مياه الصرف الصحي .

27- المعالجة الموسعة لمياه الصرف الصناعي باستخدام المفاعلات البيولوجية ضمن ظروف التهوية و انعدام الأكسجين .

28- عملية معالجة مياه الصرف .

29- دراسة أولية لآثار مياه الصرف الناتجة من مصانع تكرير البترول و الأثر الرئيسي لمكوناته على المحاصيل التجارية .

30- تصميم أنظمة المجاري في المناطق الجافة .

31- الاستفادة من المرشحات (الفلاتر) المطورة من الأسمدة الطبيعية للتخلص من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين الناتج من عمليا الامتصاص ضمن ظروف عدم التهوية و العوادم .

32- مبادئ التهوية في أنظمة المجاري و ربطها بنظام الصرف في تاينسايد .

33- نتائج اختبارات الاستخدام الطويل الأمد للمرشحات البيولوجية المطورة من الفحم الحجري في التخلص من الروائح المنبعثة من مركبات الكبريتات .

34- التحكم في الروائح المنبعثة من البحيرات الشاطئية الضحلة عديمة التهوية باستخدام غطاء بيولوجي من خلال الاستفادة من طبقات عائمة من الفحم الحجري .

35- دراسة تجريبية لمعالجة الهواء المشبع بالروائح المنبعثة من المجاري باستخدام تقنية الفلترة بالتنقيط البيولوجي .

36- المعالجة المصاحبة لعملية التحكم في انبعاث الروائح في مياه الصرف الحاوية على الحمأة المحفزة .

37- التخلص من الروائح الضارة من خلال تحليلها باستخدام ثاني أكسيد التايتانيوم كمحفز ضوئي و بالاستعانة بالكربون المحفز بواسطة الألياف .

38- العلاقة بين الإنتاج الحيواني و نوعية الهواء .

39- تقييم جدوى الاستفادة من المفاعلات البيولوجية ذات الطبقات المسالة لمعالجة النواتج الغازية الحاوية لغازي كبريتيد الهيدروجين و الأمونيا .

40- التحكم في الروائح المنبعثة من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في ميناء أزمير .

41- التحكم في غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في أنظمة تجميع مياه الصرف .

42- المركبات الكبريتية في أنظمة معالجة مياه الصرف الاستوائية : المشاكل و الحلول .

43- الاستفادة من الكربون الأكال و الغير محسن للتحكم في انبعاثات غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين من محطات معالجة المجاري .

44- التقليل من انبعاث غازي الأمونيا و كبريتيد الهيدروجين من مخازن السماد الحيواني بالاستفادة من عملية الأكسدة السطحية .

45- الفلترة البيولوجية لانبعاث الغازات من الأسفلت : التشغيل التام لعمليات معالجة الغازات المنبعثة كنواتج لعمليات إنتاج الأسفلت المحسن بالمركبات .

46- الاستفادة من القش المنتج من القمح للتقليل من انبعاثات غازي كبريتيد الهيدروجين و الأمونيا من مخازن السماد الحيواني .

47- إيقاف تسرب مركبات الكبريتيد .

48- التخلص من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين و الأحماض الدهنية الناتجة من مصارف الهواء الملوث في معامل بيولوجي مكون من طبقات ليفية .

49- التحكم في الروائح المنبعثة من محطة معالجة مياه الصرف في سانت لويس .

50- تفادي مشكلة المجاري الموجودة في خزانات التعفين .

51- علم الأنفاس الضارة .

52- دراسة الأمراض المصاحبة للتعرض لغاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في مجموعة من طلبة مدرسة بنسلفانيا .

53- الآثار الصحية الناجمة عن التعرض المزمن لكميات قليلة من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين .

54- قياس الروائح في مواقع معالجة المجاري .

55- وفيات العمل المتعلقة بالتعرض لغاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين في الولايات المتحدة ما بين عامي 1984-1994.

56- التقييم الشامل للمخاطر المرتبطة باستخدام المبيدات الحشرية والمواد الكيميائية الأخرى في مزارع الإنتاج الحيواني والنباتي .

57- حماية مجاري التنفس للعاملين في آلات التنقيب عن النفط في البحار .

58- الآثار المترتبة على انبعاث الروائح من صناعات السليولوز الورقية وعلاقتها ببعض المؤشرات الصحية.

59- الجوانب الصحية في الصناعات المرتبطة بجمع العينات في مصنع لعجينة ورق الأشجار المبيض في بريتيش كولومبيا.

60- أثر التعرض لغاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين على سلامة الرئة لدى عمال النفط والغاز في البرتا بكندا.

61- اثر استنشاق ما مقداره خمس أجزاء من المليون من غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين على الخصائص البيولوجية والكيميائية للعضلات الهيكلية لدى الرجال و النساء الرياضيين .

62- العلاقة بين مركبات الكبريت المتطايرة والبكتيريا المائية و الحالة الصحية للمرضى الذين يعانون من مشاكل انبعاث الروائح الكريهة من الفم و أولئك الذين لا يعانون منها .

63- ارتباط هجمات الربو الحاد بحالة الطقس ، و انتشار حبوب اللقاح ، وملوثات الهواء.

64- صحة المجتمع والتشريعات المقننة لانبعاث الروائح.

65- تقييم اختبار لفلترة المياه الحاوية على غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين وأعداد المجاميع البكتيرية (الكوليفورم) لتقييم نوعية المياه في المناطق الريفية في ماليزيا.

66- دراسة تلوث الهواء في جنوب كاريليا: الآثار الصحية الحادة الناتجة عن تلوث الهواء بفعل الروائح الضارة للكبريت والمنبعثة من مصانع اللحاءات .

67- ارتفاع منسوب المياه تحت السطحية في المناطق السكنية بدولة الكويت.

68- التقييم البيئي للملوثات الصناعية والمواد الكيميائية المستخدمة في الحروب .

69- تقييم الآثار الضارة المحتملة والناتجة من انبعاث غاز كبريتيد الهيدروجين من أنظمة المجاري.

70- خصائص مواد المجاري والمياه المعالجة الخارجة من خطوط أنظمة المعالجة.